The Hacker's Encyclopedia 1998

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COMPUTER SECURITY ----------------- Notes of the presentation to The Institution of Production Engineers March 21, 1990 by E.A.Bedwell, E.D.P. Specialist ORTECH International (NRC/IRAP) 2395 Speakman Dr., Mississauga L5K 1B3 (416) 822-4111, Ext. 261 The writer wishes to thank the Institution of Production Engineers and it's President for the invitation to make this presentation, and to express sincere appreciation to David Stang, Ph.D., Director of Research, National Computer Security Association, for his contribution both to this paper and to computer security in general. And I would be very remiss if I neglected to mention the professional secretarial assistance provided by Jane Templeman, who makes our whole team tick like the NRC official time clock - the one that gives the CBC time signal. This document is, hopefully, written softly: after all, it might be easier to digest if I have to eat my words. I do not profess to be "the expert" in the field of computer security; an expert is someone who knows more and more about less and less until s/he knows absolutely everything about nothing. I hope never to stop learning, which means (thankfully) I'll never be an expert. INDEX PAGE ----- ---- 1. Definition/Scope of "COMPUTER SECURITY" 2 2. Why Should You Be Concerned? 2 3. Types of Security Breaches 3 4. Reasons for Exposure 7 5. General Security Rules (all computer systems) 8 6. Viruses: 9 6.1 History 9 6.2 Effect 10 6.3 Why do people do it? 10 6.4 Symptoms 10 6.5 Concerns 11 6.6 Known Virus Software (1) 11 6.7 Quick Guide to Virus Names (1) 12 6.8 Table of Virus Effects 16 6.9 Virus Detector/Antidote software 19 6.10 Trojan Horses 20 7. PC Rules of Thumb 22 8. Easy Tricks for PC Security 23 9. So You're Infected (Cure) 24 10. Summary: What Can You Do? 25 11. Security Policy: Points for Consideration 26 12. To run SCAN (included on this diskette) 29 (1) David Stang, Ph.D, "Network Security in the Federal Government,", January, 1990, p.168-169 (updated by E.A.Bedwell, March, 1990) - 2 - Tonight's topic is "Computer Security," a subject near and dear to my heart after catching fraud a few times, and cracking system security a few times. The only unfortunate part of this evening is that I have enough material to cover an intensive 2 or 3 day seminar and I only have something over an hour, so in addition to extensive notes from this presentation, I've put an article on viruses, and a PC virus detector program on diskette for you. 1. SCOPE OF COMPUTER SECURITY Computer security relates to any potential loss of information or your ability to operate, regardless of the source of the problem. Of course, all the publicity about computer security is going to the virus situation. I don't want to dissuade anyone from their concerns about viruses, because it's definitely a growing problem, and if you get hit, you'll be sorry you ever laid eyes on a computer. But, current estimates indicate that viruses represent only 3% of all the computer problems now occurring. Of course, if you're one of the 3%, like CNIB or Barclay's Bank Canada were last fall, you'll feel like you're the only one on earth. The difference between viruses and other computer security issues is apparently one of control: I hope to convince you that you have as much control over viruses and as little control over the other 97% of problems as to make them equal threats to the safety of your computer. I'm going to get to viruses later, their prevention, detection and cure, but I'd like first like to cover the other major problems that affect computer security - the other 97% - and I'd like to start with reasons why you should be concerned about security. 2. WHY SHOULD YOU BE CONCERNED? Your data is a valuable asset, just like premises, equipment, raw materials and inventory. Because so much of modern business depends on computers - financial systems, engineering design, medical diagnosis, production and safety control - the destructive potential is greater every year. There has been more than one company that's suffered great losses, and even gone under because of the loss of things like their accounts receivable records: no one is going to pay you if you don't send them a bill, and if they get word of your inability to invoice them, their darned unlikely to volunteer payment - so you're in a financial mess. The same goes for your design information, production data, the consequences if safety control systems malfunction, or even the simple loss of your customer list. Another reason why you should be concerned is, too often, people don't think about computer security until it's too late. There's a saying in my industry that, "He who laughs last probably made a backup." Another saying is, "Experience is something you don't get until just after you needed it the most." Well, if it means the life of your company, or the loss of potentially millions of dollars, or even just the information on your home computer, it might be wise to get at least some basic knowledge before the disaster strikes. - 3 - 3. TYPES OF SECURITY BREACHES Now that the 'why' is out of the way, let's break down the 97% of problems. These are not in a specific order, but just as they came to me. Nor have I attempted to attach percentages to each type of risk, because very few computer crimes are actually reported, so any figures that anyone could estimate would not be realistic: FRAUD/THEFT By far the biggest problem is fraud or theft. Some examples of this are: CHAOS - 1987 - Hamburg -> NASA data bank info sold to USSR Foreign exchange } famous because of big $ Electronic Funds Transfer } amounts, and because of the Insider Trading } publicity they've received Most common: Cookie jar technique - e.g., interest, income tax (aka 'Salami' technique - take a little and no one will notice) Specific examples I've caught were in Payroll (no crash on < or =), Accounts Payable (dummy companies), Purchasing (failed reasonableness test), and Accounts Receivable (failed balance routine). These were all thefts of money. Another example of theft which is very interesting is the 28-year-old Canadian who was arrested at UNISYS in Pittsburgh on Dec. 13/89 - what he is alleged to have stolen was NCR's trade secrets - to the tune of US$68M, which comes under a different Canadian law from monetary theft. MALICIOUS DAMAGE / VANDALISM The next major type of computer security breach is the disgruntled employee syndrome. Their favourite is the logic bomb or time bomb: on a certain date or condition after they leave the company, something's going to happen, such as at the health centre in LA where all prescriptions suddenly multiplied by 2. That's really serious, even compared to the logic bomb that superzaps all your files off the face of the earth, because someone could die. At least with a superzap, you can recover if you've been backing up and have a disaster recovery plan in effect. Pure physical vandalism occurs more often at educational institutions, but is still a serious threat. I wouldn't let me near your machine if I was angry with you - my vandalism would be difficult to detect (and expensive to repair). A simple application of a magnetized screwdriver ...... LACK OF SECURITY PLANNING IN SYSTEM DESIGN STAGE One of the biggest logic bombs that's going to occur is on January 1/2000. Do you know how many computer systems use a 2 digit number for the year? Do you know how much work it's going to be to adapt systems to recognize 00 as being greater than 99? My grandmother was born in 1886, and most systems show her birth year as 99. If she lives to the year 1999, I wonder if they'll start sending her the baby bonus. This time bomb is not malicious damage, it's pure lack of planning at the system design stage. - 4 - (Lack of Security Planning - continued) Things like balance checks and reasonableness tests are not built into the system from the beginning, and it's not easy to put them in later. Users must participate at the system design stage, because only they know what's reasonable and what can be balanced. Don't expect a computer technician to know everything there is to know about your job. DISTORTED SENSE OF HUMOUR Then there's the practical joker - the one who thinks it's funny to break into the system to see what he can change, or create some dumb message to appear on your screen. That's what happened at IBM when the infamous Christmas tree appeared 2 years ago (1987). The joke was three-fold - first it analyzed your electronic mail distribution lists and reproduced itself to send to everyone you normally send messages to - this clogged the system up with people reading more messages than normal. The second part was a little more technical - everyone who read the message caused a separate load of the offending program to take up space in memory, unlike most systems where two or more people who are doing the same thing are sharing one load of the software. This clogged memory up so that nothing else could run. There was one more part to this: there were delay timers built into the program so it deliberately ran very slowly. The result was that the largest computer network in the world was shut down for 4 hours. Someone must have had a great need for a power trip. MISTAKE Next, there's fumble fingers: you know, the one who keys the formula in as 600 grams instead of 60 grams, or the estimated production time of 2 hours instead of 2 days. Or the one who almost took me into court when he blamed "the computer" for a mistake. Without going into details about that incident, I can say that going through the grilling by several lawyers in a preliminary investigation was not the high point of my career. What saved the situation (for me and the organization) was audit trailing: every time a transaction was entered, the system recorded the terminal i.d., the user i.d., the date and the time. It also saved a copy of the record as it existed prior to the transaction taking place. A more common mistake, though, is to unlatch a diskette door before the light goes out. Few people realize that the FAT (file attributes table) is the last thing written on a disk, and you can corrupt the FAT by removing the disk too early. "EVERYONE DOES IT" SYNDROME Then there's everyone's favourite: copying software. Believe it or not, in Canada, that falls under the Copyright law, not under theft, but it has been successfully prosecuted. Even if you reverse engineer it and make some minor changes, it will come under the "look and feel" test of the Copyright law - if it looks and feels the same as the original, you can be prosecuted. Copying software is illegal, and your company as the registered owner could be held liable if it is detected. - 5 - ILLEGAL ACCESS Many major computer crimes are perpetrated by illegal access: the 14- year old who broke into NASA from his basement computer room is just one example. There is password software on all larger machines, and it's not difficult to put it on PCs. On the larger machines, one of the major problems is not changing the standard passwords that are set when the machine is delivered: the standard user-level password may be USER, the standard operator password may be OPERATOR, and the standard field repair person's password may be REPAIR, and so on. Guess how I've cracked security a couple of times. In a 1988 article by Dr. Cliff Stoll in "Computers and Security,", he reported that in 10 months of systematic testing on computers attached to the US Defense Data Network (Milnet), access was gained in 13% of the attempts simply by guessing at passwords! There should be some rules applied to passwords: not less than 7 or 8 characters, must be changed at least every 60 days, don't use common things like names (another way I've broken security), don't share it under any circumstances and, for heaven's sake, don't post it on the front of your machine or leave it where someone can find it. It's your personal PIN - just like the money machine - and the information you're dealing with is worth money. Some of the most difficult passwords to break (take it from me) are "two words reversed" (e.g., boardwall, hornshoe, cuptea), or foreign language words (e.g., coupdegrace, millegrazie, caliente). Nonsense is good, too: geebleurql is nice. If you're installing password security on a PC, consider whether you should have it so tight that there is no recourse to the DOS level or no ability to boot from the A: drive. You'd need really good password software (or a good technician on staff) if you have both of these facilities - otherwise you can lock yourself out - but it's my preference (especially for the guy who's wiped his root directory twice). PHYSICAL SECURITY Finally, another area that affects computer security or your ability to carry on computer operations, and one that is often overlooked, is simple physical security: keys, thermal shock, vibration, dirt, water, fire, visibility of information, steady power supply, discharge of static electricity, magnetic fields, are all relevant to security. We have one man in our network who should have (a) cabling bolted to his computer and the floor, (b) a key to his unit, and (c) dust protectors (as well as password access only without recourse to the DOS level). When it comes to thermal shock, if you work in an area where the heat is reduced on winter weekends, I strongly recommend you leave your unit running over the weekend - just lock the keyboard. If the air conditioning is shut down, turn your unit off, and don't turn it on until the temperature is 23C or less. And please don't leave your machine sitting in the sun, or in front of an open window to attract dust. The internal temperature raises within 20 mins. or so to >30C, and the effects of thermal shock are such that it can, first, rock memory chips out of their sockets, and, worse, misalign the read heads on your disk drive so that nothing can be read. - 6 - (Physical Security - continued) Vibration, too, is a source of problems, especially for drives. The read heads actually float over the surface of drives, not on them the way a record player needle does, and the space tolerance between is measured in Angstroms (metric version of microinches). Vibration can cause the head to hit the drive, and you can say goodbye to whatever was written there. If you're in a particularly sensitive field, and your information is what might be called top secret to your company, you might also want to look at two protection devices: one is encryption, and the other is Tempest hardware or shielding. Encryption involves translating your data using algorithms to something unreadable, and de-coding it when you need it. It uses a "key" to choose the algorithm - dont' lose the key! It comes in a few forms: software controlled encryption, hardware based encryption, or a combination of the two. Most encryptors work with standard algorithms, but defense departments and other high-security installations prefer random algorithms. Tempest hardware, or shielding, protects against sniffing of signals. ( Signal emanation surveillance is called "sniffing.") I don't have a computer here to demonstrate this, but if you take an old battery-operated transistor radio and set the dial to the bottom of the AM band around 520, try passing it within a foot of your computer. Your ear might not pick up the individual signals, but I assure you there's equipment that does. That's why the US Army was blasting rock music around the Vatican Embassy when Noriega was there - to mask signals. More important to the average user, though, is avoidance of electro- magnetic fields (such as ringing phones near a disk or disk drive), and having an automatic disk head 'parker' that moves the heads to a safe zone every few seconds. That way, something like a brief power failure is less likely to cause a "head crash" on the disk. Simple visibility of information is a risk. Recently I went to a bank with a court order in hand to give me access to an account. The clerk simply turned the terminal toward me and, if I'd wanted to bother, I could have had the account numbers of two other people with identical names. There is screen saving software that will blank your screen after an inactivity duration you choose, and personnel should be made conscious that unauthorized viewing of information is a security risk. And watch what your staff throw out on paper, too. When it comes to fire and water, there are two basic rules that everyone can follow: first, don't smoke around the PC, and second, don't feed the PC coffee and donuts. You might be able to save a keyboard or some parts with a bath in distilled water, possibly followed by drying with a warm hair dryer, but there's no guarantee. I prefer pure isopropyl alcohol - without the hairdryer so I don't get fried in the process. Don't blast a computer with a fire extinguisher if you can avoid it. If you do have a fire or a flood, though, you'd better have a tested disaster recovery plan, and your backups stored off-site. All of these issues are reasonably within your control: fraud, theft, disgruntled employees, practical jokers, fumble fingers, software copying and physical security, at least as much as the infamous viruses that are around, but let's take a look at why you're at risk. - 7 - 4. REASONS FOR EXPOSURE Concentration of data in one place Instantaneous adjustment Alteration without a trace Lack of visible records Complexity of the system Networking Technical persons can befuddle General ignorance by non-techie and management Detection problems Lack of training Security checks in programs not specified Systems not documented Limited staff resource for programming/management No separation of duties Possibility of enormous losses remaining undetected Reluctance to report - Embarrassment Lack of sufficient evidence to prosecute Cost to prosecute outweighs recovery Company policy ("Press would have a field day") - 8 - 5. GENERAL SECURITY RULES (All Systems, big and small) Disaster Recovery } Backup Backup Backup Plan } Restore (test it to make sure it works) Store your backup off-site (not in your car!) Physical security Password for access control (don't stick your password on the front of your machine!) Access to menu only - not to system control level Reasonableness tests Balance checks (rounding: up, down, (out?); cross-calculations Audit trails - all records (terminal i.d., user i.d., date and time stamping, history record retention) Fall-through coding (if it doesn't meet a condition, does it go to limbo) Payroll/Accounts payable: don't pay the same # twice Fault tolerance level supported (user friendly/hostile - balance between fault tolerance & productivity) Call back or no answer on dial-up systems UPS (Uninterrupted Power Supply, or allowance for graceful degradation) - or at least an automatic head parker Logical view rights (your user 'privileges' allows access only to the data you need to see, e.g., accounting clerks don't need to see production formulae) Multi-user environment: protection against deadly embrace Automatic logoff on inactivity timer / Screen saver Policy statement re purchasing/use/theft/illegal software, etc. Encryption (?) - don't lose the key! Shielding ("Tempest" hardware for secure systems) Educate users - 9 - 6. VIRUSES As in medicine, a virus needs an 'organism' to which it may attach itself, and a virus is 'contagious'. In the case of computers, a virus is usually a destructive piece of code which attaches to a working program, such as your word processor, spreadsheet or CAD/CAM software. Viruses are usually written to detect any load of a computer file that has an extension of .EXE, .COM, .OVL, .BIN - such extensions representing executable programs. Often, the virus loads itself into memory, then loads the program you just called, so the virus is sitting at the front. Then when you exit the program, the virus code calls for the re-writing of the program back onto the disk - with the virus still sitting at the front. Other viruses simply go straight into your boot sector, so they get loaded every time you turn on your machine. Some do both. However they 'hide', and whatever they attach to, they got to your machine on an infected diskette. If you are infected and then copy your software to use on another machine, guess what happens? Right! That's where the 'contagious' element comes in. In 1989, more viruses were discovered than in all previous years. There were over 110 at the end of the year, and 7 were discovered in December alone. Sources have been from as far away as Pakistan and Bulgaria. Only .004% have reported infections, but most are not reported. Consider this: if only 1% were infected, that would be 1/2 million units in the U.S. alone. At a cost ranging from $300 to $3,000 per unit to recover, the problem starts to impact the economy as well as the productivity of staff at your organization. It cost one Texas company US$10M to shut down their 3,000-unit network for 4 days to find 35 infected units. One of the major problems with viruses is that 90% of the users who recover are re-infected within 30 days. One person at my organization was re-infected 7 times in 2 months! Most reinfections occur for one of two reasons (not necessarily in this order): your back-up was infected, or it was a virus that hid in the boot sector on track 0, and track 0 is not re-written by the standard "FORMAT" command (only a low-level format will get rid of a track 0 virus). Be careful of some new software as well: there has been more than one instance of shrink-wrapped software being infected (software companies have disgruntled employees, too, it seems). 6.1 HISTORY 1959 - Scientific American article about 'worms' 1963 - caught my first two frauds (Payroll & Accounts Payable) 1970 - Palo Alto lab - worm which directed activities 1982 - Anonymous Apple II worm 1984 - Scientific American CoreWare Series: held contest to find the most clever/difficult to detect 'bug' 1987 - Apparent change from intellectual exercise to dangerous activity. - 10 - 6.2 EFFECT Massive destruction: Reformatting Programs erased Data file(s) modified/erased Partial/Selective destruction: Modification of data/disk space File allocation tables altered Bad sectors created If match with event, alter or delete Random havoc: Altering keystroke values Directories wiped out Disk assignments modified Data written to wrong disk Annoyance: Message Execution of RAM resident programs suppressed System suspension 6.3 WHY DO PEOPLE DO IT? Financial gain Publicity Intellectual exercise Terrorism/Fanaticism/Vandalism Revenge Just plain wierd 6.4 SYMPTOMS Change in file size (Usually on .COM, .EXE .OVL, .BIN, .SYS or .BAT files) Change in update time or date Common update time or date Decrease in available disk or memory space Unexpected disk access Printing and access problems Unexpected system crashes - 11 - 6.5 CONCERNS Variety: Virus vs Bug vs Worm vs Trojan Horse vs Superzapper vs Trap Doors vs Piggybacking vs Impersonation vs Wiretapping vs Emulation Strains / Complexity / Growing Sophistication Bulletin board use and free software Largest threats from taking computer work home Kids using same machine at home Networked mainframe systems Travel/airline computers (AA wiped out early 1989) Work message systems (E-Mail) POS terminals Banking / Credit Cards / Money Machines Income Tax records Health records ************************************************************** * Global disaster may be on the way * * No specific laws to deal with malicious programming * * No single national centre to gather data on infections * ************************************************************** 6.6 KNOWN VIRUS SOFTWARE 12 viruses (and their strains) account for 90% of all PC infections: _ |_| Pakistani Brain |_| Jerusalem |_| Alameda |_| Cascade (1701/1704) |_| Ping Pong |_| Stoned |_| Lehigh |_| Den Zuk |_| Datacrime (1280/1168) |_| Fu Manchu |_| Vienna (DOS 62) |_| April First - 12 - 6.7 QUICK GUIDE TO VIRUS NAMES (Cross referenced) Name Synonym-1 Synonym-2 Synonym-3 Synonym-4 1168 Datacrime-B 1184 Datacrime II 1280 Datacrime Columbus Day October 12th Friday 13th 1536 Zero Bug 1701/1704 Cascade Falling Letters Falling Tears Autumn Leaves 1704 Cascade 1704 Cascade-B 1704 Cascade-C 1704 Cascade-D 1704 Format 1704 Blackjack Falling Letters 1704 Blackjack 1704 Format Falling Letters 1808 Jerusalem Black Box/Hole Israeli PLO 1808/1813 1813 Jerusalem Black Box/Hole Israeli PLO 1808/1813 2086 Fu Manchu 2930 3066 Traceback 3551 Syslock 3555 123nhalf 405 500 Virus Golden Gate 512 Virus Friday 13th COM virus 648 Vienna DOS 62 DOS 68 Austrian AIDS VGA2CGA Taunt AIDS Info Disk Alabama Alameda Virus Yale Merritt Peking Seoul Alameda-B Sacramento Yale C Alameda-C Amstrad Anti Apple II GS LodeRunner April 1st SURIV01 SURIV02 April 1st-B Ashar Austrian 648 Vienna DOS 62 DOS 68 Australian Stoned New Zealand Marijuana Autumn Leaves Cascade 1701/1704 Falling Letters Falling Tears Basit virus Brain Pakistani Brain Lehore Black Box Jerusalem Israeli Black Hole 1808/1803 PLO Black Hole Jerusalem Black Box Israeli 1808/1813 PLO Black Hole Russian Blackjack 1704 1704 Format Falling Letters Bouncing Ball Vera Cruz Ping Pong Bouncing Dot Italian virus Bouncing Dot Italian virus Bouncing Ball Vera Cruz Ping Pong Brain-B Brain-HD Harddisk Brain Houston virus Brain-C Brain-HD Harddisk Brain Houston virus Brain-B - 13 - Brain Pakistani Brain Basit virus Lehore Cascade 1701/1704 Falling Letters Falling Tears Autumn Leaves Cascade(-B-C-D) 1704 Century Oregon Jan.1, 2000 Century-B Chroma Clone Clone-B Columbus Day 1280/Datacrime October 12th Friday 13th COM virus 512 virus Friday 13th COM-B Friday 13th-B COM-C Friday 13th-C Cookie virus Sesame Street Dark Avenger Datacrime 1280 Datacrime-B 1168 Datacrime-II 1184 dBASE virus Den Zuk Search Venezuelan Disk Killer Ogre Do-Nothing (don't believe it!) DOS-62 Vienna DOS-68 648 Austrian DOS-68 Vienna DOS-62 648 Austrian DOS-62 UNESCO DOS-62-B Falling Tears Cascade 1701/1704 Falling Letters Autumn Leaves Falling Letters 1704 Blackjack 1704 Format Falling Letters Cascade 1701/1704 Falling Tears Autumn Leaves Falling Letters-Boot Ping Pong B Fat 12 Swap Israeli Boot FluShot4 (a corrupted version of a virus detector - use FluShot4+) Friday 13th 1280/Datacrime Columbus Day October 12th COM Friday 13th-B COM-B 512 Friday 13th-C COM-C Fumble Type Fu Manchu 2086 Ghost-Boot Ghost-COM Golden Gate 500 Virus Golden Gate -B Golden Gate-C Mazatlan Golden Gate-D Harddisk Brain Brain-B Brain-HD Houston virus Holland Girl Sylvia Houston virus Brain-B Brain-HD Harddisk Brain Icelandic Disk-Crunching-virus Saratoga 2 Icelandic 1 Saratoga 1 Icelandic 2 System virus INIT29 IRQ v. 41 Israeli Friday13 Jerusalem Black Box/Hole 1808/1813 PLO Israeli Boot Swap Fat 12 - 14 - Italian virus Bouncing Ball Vera Cruz Ping Pong Bouncing Dot Jan.1, 2000 Century Oregon Jerusalem Israeli Black Box/Hole 1808/1813 PLO Friday 13th Jerusalem-B New Jerusalem Jerusalem-C Jerusalem-D Jerusalem-E Jork Key Lehigh Lehigh-2 Lehore Brain Pakistani Brain Basit Lisbon LodeRunner Apple II GS MacMag Peace virus Madonna (while the nice music plays, your hard disk is being destroyed) Mailson Marijuana New Zealand Stoned Mazatlan Golden Gate-C Merritt Alameda virus Yale Peking Seoul Mix1 Music virus Oropax virus New Jerusalem Jerusalem-C New Zealand Stoned Marijuana Australian New Zealand-B Stoned-B New Zealand-C Stoned-C nVIR October 12th 1280/Datacrime Columbus Day Friday 13th Ohio Ogre Disk Killer Oregon Century Oropax virus Music virus Pakistani Brain Lehore Basit Brain Palette Zero Bug Payday Peace Virus MacMag Pearson Peking Alameda virus Yale Merritt Seoul Pentagon Ping Pong Bouncing Dot Italian virus Bouncing Ball Vera Cruz Ping Pong-B Falling Letters-Boot PLO Jerusalem Friday 13th 1808/1813 Israeli Russian Black Hole Sacramento Alameda-B Yale C Saratoga 1 Icelandic 1 Saratoga 2 Icelandic Disk-Crunching-virus Scores Search Den Zuk Venezuelan Seoul Alameda virus Yale Merritt Peking Sesame Street Cookie virus SF virus Shoe virus UIUC virus (see also Terse Shoe) - 15 - Shoe virus-B Stoned New Zealand Marijuana Australian Stoned-B New Zealand-B Stoned-C New Zealand-C SUMDOS Sunday SRI (destroys anti-viral programs before it damages your system) SURIV01 April 1st SURIV02 April 1st SURIV03 Swap Israeli Boot Fat 12 Sylvia Holland Girl SYS Syslock 3551 System virus Icelandic 2 Taunt AIDS VGA2CGA Terse Shoe (see also Shoe virus) TP04VIR Vacsina TP25VIR Yankee Doodle TP33VIR Yankee Doodle TP34VIR Yankee Doodle TP38VIR Yankee Doodle TP42VIR Yankee Doodle TP44VIR Yankee Doodle TP46VIR Yankee Doodle Traceback 3066 Typo (boot) Typo (COM) Fumble UIUC virus Shoe virus UNESCO DOS-62 Venezuelan Den Zuk Search Vera Cruz Ping Pong Bouncing Dot Italian Virus Bouncing Ball Vacsina TP04VIR VGA2CGA AIDS Taunt Vienna DOS-62 DOS-68 648 Austrian Vienna-B Yale Alameda virus Merritt Peking Seoul Yale C Alameda-B Sacramento Yankee Doodle TP25VIR Yankee Doodle TP33VIR Yankee Doodle TP34VIR Yankee Doodle TP38VIR Yankee Doodle TP42VIR Yankee Doodle TP44VIR Yankee Doodle TP46VIR Zero Bug 1536 - 16 - 6.8 TABLE OF VIRUS EFFECTS (by virus name) This information is a reformatted version of that which was made available to the writer by the National Computer Security Association, Suite 309, 4401-A Connecticut Ave. NW, Washington, D.C., 20008. This list is not as complete as the list of names preceding. Since viruses must be created and caught before they can be analyzed for the type of information that follows, this list will never be as complete as the list of names. In some instances, you may have been infected with a variation of the name. You might wish to check this list for all possible variations of a name you've found on the list of synonyms. Explanation of codes used under "What it does", and analysis of frequency of occurrence of each effect: EFFECT # OCCURRENCES % ------ - ----------- - 1. Virus uses self-encryption 13 12 2. Virus remains resident 83 74 3. Infects COMMAND.COM 8 7 4. Infects .COM files 62 55 5. Infects .EXE files 41 37 6. Infects .OVL files 15 13 7. Infects floppy disk boot sector 36 32 8. Infects hard disk boot sector 14 13 9. Infects partition table 1 1 10. Corrupts or overwrites boot sector 31 28 11. Affects system run-time operation 53 47 12. Corrupts program or overlay files 57 51 13. Corrupts data files 4 4 14. Formats or erases all/part of the disk 17 15 15. Corrupts file linkage (FAT) 9 8 16. Overwrites program 4 4 17. Mac virus (as opposed to PC virus) 2 2 Increase in Disinfector VIRUS NAME Prog'm size that works What it does ---------- ----------- ----------- ------------ 1168/Datacrime B 1168 SCAN/D 1, 4, 12, 14 1184/Datacrime 2 1184 1, 4, 5, 12, 14 123nhalf 3907 2, 5, 11, 13 1280/Datacrime 1280 SCAN/D 1, 4, 12, 14 1514/Datacrime II 1514 SCAN/D 1, 4, 5, 12, 14 1536/Zero Bug 1536 SCAN/D 2, 4, 11, 12 1701/Cascade 1701 M-1704 1, 2, 4, 11, 12 1704/Format 1704 M-1704 1, 2, 4, 11, 12, 14 1704/Cascade 1704 M-1704 1, 2, 4, 11, 12 1704/Cascade-B 1704 M-1704 1, 2, 4, 11, 12 1704/Cascade-C 1704 1, 2, 4, 11, 12 1704/Cascade-D 1704 1, 2, 4, 11, 12 2930 2930 SCAN/D 2, 4, 5, 12 - 17 - 3066/Traceback 3066 M-3066 2, 4, 5, 12 3551/Syslock 3551 SCAN/D 1, 4, 5, 12, 13 3555 3555 1, 3, 4 405 SCAN/D 4, 16 AIDS SCAN/D 4, 16 AIDS Info Disk 0 AIDSOUT 11 Alabama 1560 SCAN/D 2, 5, 11, 12, 15 Alameda-B 2, 7, 10 Alameda-C 2, 7, 10 Alameda/Yale MDISK 2, 7, 10 Amstrad 847 SCAN/D 4, 12 April 1st 2, 4, 11 April 1st-B 2, 5, 11 Ashar MDISK 2, 7, 10 Black Hole 1808 2, 4, 5, 6, 11, 12, 15 Brain-B 2, 7, 8, 10 Brain-C 2, 7, 8, 10 Century 2, 4, 5, 6, 11, 12, 14, 15 Century-B 2, 4, 5, 6, 11, 12, 14, 15 Clone-B 2, 7, 10, 15 Clone virus 2, 7, 8, 10 dBASE 1864 SCAN/D 2, 4, 11, 12, 13 DOS-62-B 3, 4, 11 DOS-62-UNESCO 650 3, 4, 11 Dark Avenger 1800 M-DAV 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 11, 12, 15 Datacrime II-B 1917 SCAN/D 1, 3, 4, 5, 12, 14 Disk Killer MDISK 2, 7, 8, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14 Do-Nothing 608 SCAN/D 4, 12 Fri 13th COM 512 SCAN/D 4, 12 Fri 13th COM-B 512 4, 12 Fri 13th COM-C 512 4, 12 Fu Manchu 2086 SCAN/D 2, 4, 5, 6, 11, 12 Ghost-Boot ver. MDISK 2, 7, 8, 10, 11 Ghost-COM ver. 2351 SCAN/D 4, 10, 12 Golden Gate 2, 7, 10, 14 Golden Gate-B 2, 7, 10, 14 Golden Gate-C 2, 7, 10, 14 Golden Gate-D 2, 7, 10, 14 IRQ v. 41 4, 5, 11 Icelandic I 642 SCAN/D 2, 5, 11, 12 Icelandic II 661 SCAN/D 2, 5, 11, 12 Italian/Ping Pong MDISK 2, 7, 10, 11 Italian-B MDISK 2, 7, 8, 10, 11 Jerusalem 1808 SCAN/D/A 2, 4, 5, 6, 11, 12 Jerusalem-B 1808 M-JERUSLM 2, 4, 5, 6, 11, 12 Jerusalem-C 1808 2, 4, 5, 6, 11, 12 Jerusalem-D 1808 2, 4, 5, 6, 11, 12 Jerusalem-E 1808 2, 4, 5, 6, 11, 12, 15 Jork 2, 7, 10 Lehigh SCAN/D 2, 3, 12, 14, 16 Lehigh-2 2, 3, 12, 14, 15, 16 Lisbon 648 SCAN/D 4, 12 - 18 - MIX1 1618 SCAN/D 2, 5, 11, 12 New Jerusalem 1808 M-JERUSLM 2, 4, 5, 6, 11, 12 New Zealand MD 7 New Zealand-B 7, 8 New Zealand-C 7, 8 nVIR 11, 17 Ohio MDISK 2, 7, 10 Oropax 2, 4 Pakistani Brain MDISK 2, 7, 10 Palette/Zero Bug 1536 2, 3, 4, Payday 1808 M-JERUSLM 2, 4, 5, 6, 12 Pentagon MDISK 7, 10 SF Virus 2, 7, 11, 14 SRI 1808 2, 4, 5, 6, 11, 12 SURIV01 897 SCAN/D 2, 4, 11, 12 SURIV02 1488 SCAN/D 2, 5, 11, 12 SURIV03 SCAN/D 2, 4, 5, 6, 11, 12 SYS 2, 7, 8, 11, 12 SYS-B 2, 7, 8, 11, 12 SYS-C 2, 7, 8, 11, 12 Saratoga 632 SCAN/D 2, 5, 11, 12 Saratoga-2 2, 5, 11, 12 Scores 11, 17 Search HD 2, 7, 8, 10, 11 Search-B 2, 7, 10, 11 Search/Den Zuk MDISK 2, 7, 10, 11 Shoe virus 2, 7, 8, 10 Shoe virus-B 2, 7, 10 Stoned/Marijuana MDISK/P 2, 7, 9, 10, 11, 15 SumDOS 1500 4, 5, 14 Sunday 1636 SCAN/D 2, 4, 5, 6, 11, 12 Swap/Israeli Boot MDISK 2, 7, 10 Sylvia/Holland 1332 SCAN/D 2, 4, 12 Terse Shoe virus 2, 7, 10 Typo (Boot) MDISK 2, 7, 8, 10, 11 Typo/Fumble (COM) 867 SCAN/D 2, 4, 11, 12 Vacsina/TP04VIR 2, 4, 5 Vienna-B 648 SCAN/D 2, 4, 5, 12 Vienna/648 648 M-VIENNA 4, 12 Yankee Doodle 2855 SCAN/D 2, 4, 5, 11, 12 Yankee Doodle/TP25VIR 2, 4, 5 Yankee Doodle/TP33VIR 2, 4, 5 Yankee Doodle/TP34VIR 2, 4, 5 Yankee Doodle/TP38VIR 2, 4, 5 Yankee Doodle/TP42VIR 2, 4, 5 Yankee Doodle/TP44VIR 2, 4, 5 Yankee Doodle/TP46VIR 2, 4, 5 - 19 - 6.9 VIRUS DETECTOR AND ANTIDOTE SOFTWARE *** None offer complete protection *** Some do NOT test for boot sector viruses, modification of the command interpreter, branching into the BIOS, etc., unconventional things that nasty viruses are known to do. This is not a comprehensive list, but you'll have an idea of what's available, either commercially or through public domain. Look for a product that will detect as many of the effects identified in the previous section as possible. Warning: some highly publicized virus detectors only search for ONE (1) virus! Others are more sophisticated, and may even act as a disinfector as well as a detector. Old virus symptoms vs file changes Antidote Antigen Bombsqad Canary Cylene-4 C-4 Disk Defender * recommended (add-on board - write-protects hard disk) Disk watcher Dr. Panda Utilities IBM - COMPare in DOS Mace vaccine Magic Bullets Syringe Sentry * recommended for systems booted regularly Vaccine Viraid Virus-Pro * recommended for large corporate environments Shareware: Novirus Flushot4+ Virusck Viruscan Plus what's shown on preceding pages as a "Disinfector that works". I also have a list of over 100 shareware products that do everything from detect and/or disinfect to write-protecting the hard drive and requiring password access .... but my fingers are getting tired from typing at this point, and there are more important things to cover - after all, if you're careful, you won't need a list of detectors/disinfectors. - 20 - 6.10 TROJAN HORSES While a "virus" is something hidden within another program that is waiting to make your system really sick, and a "worm" may be something that lives on its own and usually transmits through networked computers, a "Trojan Horse" is a little of both, so I've included it with this virus section if only to warn you of its existence. It lives on its own as a program, and will bring you down like Helen of Troy's soldiers. "I wouldn't copy something like that," you say. Well, like Helen's horse, it comes disguised. It will purport to do something really neat, like compress files (so you have more disk space available), sort your directories (so you can find things more easily), or play chess or another game with you. In actuality, it's really just waiting to do the things that viruses do - trash your files, scramble your boot sector, fry your FAT, or erase your hard disk. It doesn't usually do anything it promises to do. The following are just a few examples of the known Trojan Horses, most of which come from bulletin boards. Please don't misunderstand me, most BB operators are honest people who are trying to help the computer industry as a whole, but they can't be held responsible for the people who might dial into their BB and leave a disaster waiting until the next caller(s). SCRNSAVE.COM: This is supposed to blank your screen after x seconds of inactivity, thus preventing image burn-in or apparently offering a sense of security; say goodbye to your files while it erases your harddisk. TSRMAP: For the 'sophisticated' user who uses Terminate and Stay Resident programs, it's sometimes handy to have a map of where these programs are loaded in memory, and be able to delete some if you're short of memory; hopefully this same 'sophisticated' user has a copy of track 0, because his was just sent to heaven ..... or elsewhere. DOS-HELP: Sounds great, doesn't it? This TSR program is supposed to give on-line help on DOS commands. Your hard disk was just formatted. ULTIMATE.EXE: This is supposed to be a DOS shell (if you've used Directory Scanner or some other software that allows you to move around directories and load programs easily, or even a menu system, then you know what a DOS shell is). While the "Loading..." message shows on your screen, the FAT (file allocation table) of your hard disk went to the trash bin. BARDTALE.ZIP This purports to be a commercial game from Electronic Arts (BARDTALE I) Someone reverse engineered this program, and wrote in a routine to format your hard disk upon invocation. - 21 - COMPRESS.ARC This is dated April 1 1987, is executed from a file named RUN-ME.BAT, and is advertised as "shareware from Borland" (Borland is a highly reputable company). It will not compress your files, but it will very competently destroy your FAT table. DANCERS.BAS You'll actually see some animated dancers in colour - while your FAT is being tromped on. DEFENDER.ARC Think you're going to get a copy of Atari's DEFENDER for nothing, huh? There's still no such thing as a free lunch, and this one will be particularly expensive: it not only formats your hard disk, but it writes itself to your ROM BIOS - the chip that holds the Basic Input Output System for your machine. Get your wallet out. SIDEWAYS.COM The good "SIDEWAYS.EXE" is about 30Kb, while this version is about 3Kb. The really big difference, though, is what happens to your hard drive - it's spun off into oblivion. These are only a few of the 70 or so Trojans I have listed at work, but I'm sure you've got the idea. These programs (a) stand alone, (b) often claim to do something useful, (c) may be hacked versions of good software, (d) may be named the same as good software, (e) may send you back to using a quill pen. - 22 - 7. PC RULES OF THUMB (Additional to Basic Rules of Thumb) Run virus check BEFORE backup Boot floppy systems from known, protected disks only Never work with masters - first make copies on a trusted machine Store data on floppy: set path in autoexec.bat, but load from A: to ensure data goes to floppy Save your data periodically while working Use write protect tabs Use write protect software on hard disk / backup track 0 Never boot HD systems from floppies (unless known and protected) New/repaired hard disk? - run a virus detector Use protection package (practice safe hex) Avoid shareware / BB demos if you use a BB, set path to A: beforehand, download only to A:, poweroff immediately after, then powerup and do a virus scan on the floppy; always scan shareware Know the source of your software Don't use illegal copies If your data is truly confidential, don't depend on DELETE - you must use, e.g., Wipefile Autopark software Hardcards - 23 - 6. A FEW EASY TRICKS FOR PC SECURITY 1. Set Read only attributes on all files ending with .COM, .EXE, .SYS, . OVL, .BIN, .BAT e.g.: ATTRIB +R *.SYS 2. Use an undocumented trick in DOS of naming your data files ending with an ASCII blank or NUL character (ASCII 32 or 255): *** e.g.: COPY A:OLDFILE.TXT NEWFILECHR$(255).TXT or REN A:MYFILE.DAT MYFILECHR$(32).DAT *** Newer versions of DOS will give the ASCII blank or null by holding the [Alt] key and striking the numeric keypad numbers; e.g. COPY A:OLDFILE.TXT NEWFILE[Alt]255 3. Prevent inadvertent formatting of the hard disk: Rename FORMAT.EXE to (e.g.) DANGER.EXE Write a 1-line batch file called FORMAT.BAT: DANGER A: %1 %2 %3 %4 %5 %6 4. Have a batch program as a shutdown routine, to run: 1. Virus Check 2. Copy Track 0 3. Back up your data files 4. Park the heads - 24 - 9. SO YOU'RE INFECTED Terminate all connections with other computers Record your last activities Determine the nature and extent of the damage Notify other users Contact the source of the carrier software _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Back up data files to new diskettes Erase infected disk (using high or low level format - low level is preferred to re-write track 0) Check master disks with detection program(s) Restore system files Restore data files Run detection program(s) again Be careful in future - think like a thief! ------------------ - 25 - 10. SUMMARY: WHAT CAN YOU DO? There are many aspects to computer security, none of which are totally within your control, but all of which are reasonably within your control. One of the major methods of getting control is to establish an enforceable security policy AND a disaster recovery plan. However, it's almost impossible to establish a plan unless you first know what the risks are. WHEN YOU GO BACK TO YOUR OFFICE Try putting some staff into two teams: "hackers" and "police" (or call them Blue Jays and Cardinals if you find that offensive). The role of the hackers is to try to dream up all the things they could get from or do to the company (or to a department) by breaking computer security. The role of the police is to respond with defenses. Then switch roles. List all the ideas, no matter how "far out" they seem, then use this for the basis of risk analysis and disaster recovery planning. The only rule to this game is that no idea is initially rejected. Now that you have some idea of the value of your data and the risks it is under, you can begin to work on a "Computer Security Policy" and a "Disaster Recovery Plan." While many suggestions have been made on the previous pages, recognize that not all risks/solutions apply to all organizations: you have to make some judgement calls based on your assessment of the risk. The judgement is based on how much loss you can comfortably sustain, yet remain in business. The level of security protection you require may not always be the same. It may vary with the value of the hardware, software or data under consideration; the security level, therefore, might be stated as "minimal," "discretionary," "mandatory," or "verified." The point is, as long as it's been considered, you're closer to having a good security system than if you have no policy or a policy that's based on guesswork. You may find, after working on this for a while, that you may wish to develop a separate policy for the selection or development, change, testing and implementation of software. This might be stated as simply as, "No system shall be acquired, developed, changed or implemented without the prior approval of the Systems Steering Group." This might also go on to cover documentation; e.g., "Documentation must be complete for all systems prior to implementation, and must include sections on files used, access controls, security considerations and controls (etc.)." Some further points for consideration are included in the next section. - 26 - 11. COMPUTER SECURITY POLICY: POINTS FOR CONSIDERATION Any policy on computer security must be based on the premise that information is a valuable asset of the company, just like its premises, equipment, raw materials, inventory and so on. More than one company has gone under because they lost their accounts receivable data in a fire, flood, or from a simple hard disk failure. The value of your data should be subjected to a risk analysis, and all identifiable risks assessed. It is not until you identify the risks that you can plan for a disaster recovery. Your policy might include some of the many things addressed previously in this paper: e.g., storing data only on removable media (diskettes or tapes), limiting access to bulletin boards, establishing password controls, rules on physical security, use of immunization software, etc. There are, however, some other specific points not previously discussed: RESPONSIBILITY Recognize that security is a management issue, not a technological issue, and that setting policy is the responsibility of senior management. They must be 'on board' and understand why a security policy is needed to make it sensible and effective, and they must give overt support. Someone should be in charge of computer and network security. Without someone in charge, important security tasks may not get done. The duties of the security manager would include responsibility for limiting access to the network, securing the information that passes over it, overseeing password systems, and installing security packages that protect computers from illegal tampering once a user is on the network. Other duties might include analyzing the network for security weaknesses and helping users understand the security strengths and weaknesses of the network. The amount of time required of the system security specialist may depend on the size of the organization, and on the number and complexity of the systems in use or planned. Having one person in charge is probably the ideal security arrangement. The security specialist can become aware of all of the issues affecting computer/network security, can schedule and establish priority for actions, and can ensure that the actions are taken. This position in the organization requires some authority and autonomy. For instance, security is compromised if the boss shares his/her password. The security specialist needs to be able to change the boss's password if this happens, and gently but firmly discuss the problems which could result. In many organizations, putting two or more people in charge of something diffuses responsibility. Each can think that some security concern was the responsibility of the other. If two individuals are charged with network security, be certain that they work well together, communicate - 27 - well, and will each put in their fair share of the analysis and work that is required for security. In some organizations, a "communications manager" is responsible for limiting access to the network (with dialback modems and encryption devices), while the network manager maintains password systems and installs security software. If someone is in charge of network security and you don't know about it, then they haven't been very obvious about it. They need not be. But if it is evident to you that security is lacking, then perhaps the issue of responsibility should be examined (or re-examined). BACKUPS Those who are most zealous about backups are those who've been affected in the past by a loss of data. If backups are performed every day, your computer or network is probably in good shape when the hard disk or file server goes to heaven. You will want to verify that this is the case, since most organizations (and individuals) put this off... and off... until it's too late. Backing a system up once a week is not enough, unless the system is rarely used. If your last backup was a week ago, and your hard disk or the hard disk in the file server crashes, all users of the network have lost one week's work. This cost is enormous. If you have 10 users who have lost 30 hours of work each, if each user is paid $20/hour, and overhead is 100%, then you have just lost 10 x 30 x 20 x 2 = $12,000. If you assume that backup takes one $20 hour with a tape drive, you could back the system up 600 times for $12,000. That's nearly three years, if backups are done five times a week. Many hard disks will not run continuously for three years. Even if you're a 'stand alone' computer user, your time is valuable. You might consider a policy that, if recovery covers a period of more than 'x' days, it must be done on the employee's own time, and all deadlines must be met - tough, but it get's the point across! Irregular backups are a sign that backup is not taken as seriously as it should be. It is probably wisest to do the arithmetic, comparing the costs of backup with the costs of losing work for multiple users. The cost comparison in the commentary on the second answer doesn't even consider the possibility of losing irreplaceable files, such as those containing new accounts receivable entries or new prospects. Since file backup is a "private" activity, not knowing how often it occurs does not mean that it does not occur. But if you have a security concern, you should find out what the correct answer is. After all, if you use the network, and it is not backed up frequently, it is your work that is lost when the hard disk in the server crashes. - 28 - BEWARE: backing up is NOT enough! You MUST periodically run your recovery procedure .... how else will you know it will work when you need it most? PURCHASING The policy should state the controls in place for purchase of both hardware and software, and it should be consistent and centralized. Unless you've seen what some software can do to destroy security, or how difficult it is to interconnect different equipment, this might seem to destroy some autonomous activities in your organization. Autonomy be darned, it's the company that's paying the bill. MAINTENANCE AGREEMENTS All warranty registrations must be mailed to the manufacturer, and records kept of purchase dates, expiry dates and repairs made under the warranty. Keeping accurate records has substantiated the complete replacement of more than one machine. SOFTWARE LOADING The checking, copying and loading of software should be the responsibility of one person or department. The 'penalty' for loading illegal/unauthorized software can range from a note in the personnel file to dismissal, depending on the organization. The opposite, copying the organization's software for loading in another location, should also be covered in the policy, because the company (as the registered owner) could be party to a lawsuit without the ability to plead ignorance. EMPLOYMENT TERMINATION In several organizations, when a person submits their resignation, their access to the computer system is immediately withdrawn. This, of course, requires a close liaison with the personnel department in large organizations. Many of these companies feel it's worth the salary cost to have the person leave the premises immediately (escorted), and simply pay out their notice period. If your company adopts such a policy, it should be made very clear that it is not an indication of trust in the person, but simply a means to reduce risk to the valuable resources of hardware, software and data. It must be administered consistently and equitably to avoid problems. There are problems with such a policy, not the least of which could be someone who gives a very lengthy notice period simply because they're aware of the policy - but you could transfer them to a clerical job for the interim (like the mail room) or to maintenance staff (washroom detail). - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 29 - 12. TO RUN SCAN (Virus detection software included on this diskette) SCAN looks for 42 viruses in software files, but not in data files. I know it works on Jerusalem-B because I used SCAN to detect that virus on a machine at work. This is NOT the latest version of SCAN, but then again, you're not likely to have the latest viruses (I hope). If you want to print the documentation, type: COPY A:SCAN.DOC PRN If you want to run SCAN, just type: A:SCAN [drive identifier] e.g., A:SCAN C: An article from the Washington Post, January 14, 1990, on Computer Viruses was added to the diskette after this paper was written. To read this article, key TYPE A:ARTICLE|MORE To print the article, key COPY A:ARTICLE PRN - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - If you have found this presentation useful, either by attending or by reading or using the information on this diskette, then I am rewarded. If you found it useful, please feel free to copy this diskette or its contents and share it with others - I would ask that you don't change anything, though. (It was virus free at the time I made the original diskette - but if you trust that statement, you might just have made your first mistake.) If you'd like to make suggestions that would improve the information on this diskette, I would be very happy to hear from you. I'd also like to hear from you if you wish to discuss security issues, get a virus infection or hit by a Trojan Horse, or even just to comment on the contents of this paper. My address and phone number are on the first page of this document. If you would like to join the National Computer Security Association, a 'form' for application is on the next page. They provide benefits such as a Virus Self-Defense Kit that's more sophisticated than the software on this diskette, newsletters, a virus-free bulletin board with hundreds of security-related programs, discounts on software, books and conferences, and advice if you run into trouble. Happy (and safe) computing! E. A. (Liz) Bedwell National Computer Association Suite 309 4401-A Connecticut Ave. NW Washington, DC USA 20008 Phone: (202) 364-8252 [ ] I wish to join NCSA. Cheque enclosed for $45.00 (US funds) [ ] I wish to join NCSA. Please bill me for $45.00 (US funds) Name: _____________________________________________________ Organization: _____________________________________________________ Address: _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ City, Prov.: ____________________________ Postal Code ____________ Phone (with area code): ___________________________________________ Title or Position, or interest in computer security: _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________