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INFERENCE -- SOFTMAN ENTERPRIZES -- Dec. 30, 1985 INTRODUCTION: The software contained in this distribution is copyright (C) by George Hageman 1985 and is released into the public domain with the following restrictions: (1) This software is intended for non-commertial usage. (2) I am held save from damages resulting from its use, and (3) The following concepts and legal jargon are agreed to by the user of this software. User-supported software concept: IF you find use for this software ANDIF it saves you some development time THEN send me $10.00 ANDTHENHYP you will feel good! This source code is provided on an "as is" basis without warranty of any kind, expressed or implied, including but not limited to the implied warranties of merchantability and fitness for a particular purpose. The entire risk as to quality and performance of this software is with you. Should the software prove defective, you assume the entire cost of all necessary repair, servicing, or correction. In no event will the author be liable to you for any damages, including any lost profits, lost savings, or other incidental or consequential damages arising out of the use of inability to use this software. In short my friends, I have done a reasonable amount of work in debugging this software and I think it is pretty good but, as you know, there is always some chance that a bug is still lurking around. If you should happen to be lucky enough to find one, please let me know so I can make an attempt to fix it. The following is a short description of how to use the inference engine and rule-compiler contained in this software release. The source and object files for the rule compiler and the inference engine are contained in the files named *.?R and *.?I, respectively. There are common files in each library. These common files are header files which are used to define common terms between the different sources. The most important header file is the file named "expert.h" which not only contains common definitions used between the rule compiler and the inference engine, but has a short description of their usage as well. This inference engine, and its associated rule compiler, represents a significant time investment for me, so if you believe in the shareware concept please remember my address. George W. Hageman P.O. Box 11234 Boulder, Colorado 80301 George W. Hageman --1-- INFERENCE -- SOFTMAN ENTERPRIZES -- Dec. 30, 1985 This software compiles using the Microsoft C Compiler Rev 3.0 using the make function which comes with the Microsoft Macro Assembler Rev. 4.0. I have nothing but good things to say about these two products and suggest that you consider their purchase if you are into serious software development for the PC. This software also compiles and runs under UNIX system V. Use the UNIXSV flag in the makefile or use a -DUNIXSV when you compile it. George W. Hageman --2-- INFERENCE -- SOFTMAN ENTERPRIZES -- Dec. 30, 1985 INFERENCE ENGINES: An inference engine is merely a program which attempts to prove consequents given a certain set of antecedents and a set of rules which define the TRUTH or FALSEness of each consequent in terms of the antecedents. The consequents, antecedents and rules for this inference engine are contained in a text file which is compiled by the rule-compiler into a form the inference engine can understand. Often these two functions are contained in the same executeable, but I have decided to split them up to make the inference engine as small as possible. Rules are collections of ANTECEDENTS and CONSEQUENTS formed into TRUTH statements. Each rule is an attempt state that "If all of the antecedents for this particular RULE are TRUE, then all of the consequents connected to this rule are TRUE. If one or more of the antecedents for a RULE are FALSE, then it is assumed that this rule cannot prove the TRUTH of the consequents, but this does not necessarily prove the consequents FALSE since some other rule may prove them TRUE." Rules must have at least one ANTECEDENT and at least one CONSEQUENT to be considered valid. Each ANTECEDENT and CONSEQUENT is a simple statement consisting of a leading KEYWORD, and a FOLLOWING STRING. KEYWORDS tell the inference engine what the FOLLOWING STRING will mean or what is to be done with it. The FOLLOWING STRINGs may be either in upper or lower case and are either statements such as "THE ANIMAL IS A BAT", or, a pathname to an executeable which will be loaded and executed depending on what is defined by the KEYWORD. Strings, except for the number of leading blanks, can be considered equal only if they are identical. The reason for this rule will become apparent later. An example of a pathname FOLLOWING STRING is "/b1/hageman/expert/storm/gt_3200 data.fil". Note that the strings denoting pathnames should be exactly as they would be if the pathname were to be given at a terminal, also, you may include parameters with any pathname. These parameters are no different than the parameters that you would use if you were initiating the executeable from the terminal rather than via the inference engine. Under MS_DOS these path names can either be upper or lower case, and for the UNIX operating system, they must correspond to the exact path name. George W. Hageman --3-- INFERENCE -- SOFTMAN ENTERPRIZES -- Dec. 30, 1985 QUICK AND DIRTY: Impatient? Well here are some quick ways to get started with the inference engine, leave all that reading till later! ONE: Use your text editor (WS in the Non-document mode only Please) to create a quick rule file, or use the animals example contained in this release. Skip to the next page if you want to find out what the KEYWORDS are and how to use them. TWO: Compile the rules with the rule-compiler by typing.. rulecomp inputfile outputfile where the inputfile is the filename of the file containing your rules, and the outputfile is the file inwhich you want the compiled rules to be written to. Caution, the rule compiler does not check for the equivalence of the inputfile and outputfile filenames, if they are identical you will probably have to type in your rules again. THREE: Run the inference engine by typing .. inference outputfile answer the questions and go back to step ONE if you found an error with your rules or you want to expand them. George W. Hageman --4-- INFERENCE -- SOFTMAN ENTERPRIZES -- Dec. 30, 1985 KEYWORDS: The following are the KEYWORDS which the rule compiler can recognize, and a short description of what each means and how each would be used. Note that the members of each group have identical meaning and can therefore be substituted for each other without effecting the sense of the rule. Latter examples will attempt to demonstrate this fact. IF, AND, ANDIF: These KEYWORDS define the FOLLOWING STRING as an ANTECEDENT, and the TRUTH sense of the string is TRUE if the string is TRUE. These KEYWORDS can be used interchangeable without effecting the sense of the rule being expressed. Example: IF the animal is a mammal ANDIF the animal has hooves AND the animal has horns This is equivalent to: AND the animal is a mammal IF the animal has hooves ANDIF the animal has horns Note that since the antecedent part of a rule is essentially a large AND statement, the order in which the individual statements are arranged is a matter of esthetics only. However, it may be more readable to the human, if a certain order is maintained. IFNOT, ANDNOT These KEYWORDS are essentially identical to the above KEYWORDS except that the sense of the statement is reversed. That is to say that if the following string is TRUE then the truth value of the statement is FALSE. Example: IFNOT the animal is a mammal ANDNOT the animal has smooth skin ANDNOT the animal breaths air THEN animal is a fish George W. Hageman --5-- INFERENCE -- SOFTMAN ENTERPRIZES -- Dec. 30, 1985 IFRUN, ANDRUN, ANDIFRUN These KEYWORDS tell the inference engine that the FOLLOWING STRING is to be used as a pathname to an executeable. This executeable is to be loaded and run and the resultant TRUTH value returned when the routine exits is the TRUTH value of the ANTECEDENT statement. Like the AND, IF, ANDIF KEYWORDS above, each of these may be substituted for any of the others without effecting the sense of the rule statement. Note that the full path name of the executeable is not needed if the executeable file resides in the working directory from which the inference engine was initiated. Example: IFRUN /b1/hageman/expert/gt3000 ANDRUN /b1/hageman/expert/sedir direction.dat ANDIFRUN falling barompress THEN sorry about the picnic IFNOTRUN, ANDNOTRUN These are used as the KEYWORDS above are used -- to initiate the execution of an ANTECEDENT executeable file, except that the truth value of the result is reversed as with the IFNOT, ANDNOT and the ANDIFNOT KEYWORDS. Example: IFNOTRUN gt3000 ANDNOTRUN sedir direction.dat ANDNOTRUN falling barompress THEN how about a picnic? THEN, ANDTHEN, THENHYP, ANDTHENHYP These KEYWORDS tell the inference engine that the FOLLOWING STRING is a CONSEQUENT. If all of the immediately proceeding ANTECEDENTS have a truth value of TRUE, then the inference engine INFERS that the CONSEQUENT is TRUE. The THEN KEYWORDS ending in "HYP" tell the inference engine that the FOLLOWING STRING is an ending CONCLUSION and no further processing or inferencing is required. The routine will exit when one of the THENHYP or ANDTHENHYP CONSEQUENTS are proven TRUE. Therefore, one should use the "HYP" CONSEQUENT KEYWORDS with care. Examples: IF you have an aunt ANDIF your aunt has a child THEN you have a cousin IF you have a cousin THENHYP you have at least two relatives George W. Hageman --6-- INFERENCE -- SOFTMAN ENTERPRIZES -- Dec. 30, 1985 THENRUN, ANDTHENRUN, THENRUNHYP, ANDTHENRUNHYP These are similar to the THEN, ANDTHEN etc. KEYWORDS except they perform the loading and execution of the FOLLOWING STRING path name if they are proven TRUE. The value returned by the executeable file loaded becomes the value remembered for the CONSEQUENT. The truth value for a CONSEQUENT proceeded with the KEYWORDS of THEN or ANDTHEN is only remembered if it is proven TRUE. However, with the RUN type of CONSEQUENT since it is initiated only when found to be proven, the predicate value it returns is remembered even if it is FALSE. This prevents the rerunning of CONSEQUENT routines. In this manner one can use rules to determine weather or not a particular routine should be executed, then use the truth value returned by the routine upon its exit in other rule statements. An obvious use for such a function would be in the field of diagnostics. Through a set of rules it could be determined that a particular diagnostic should be run, once the diagnostic has been run, further rules could use the fact of whether the diagnostic test passed (TRUE) or failed (FALSE) to make decisions about the further isolation of the hardware failure. Example: ! IFNOTRUN isdev1 IFNOTRUN isdev2 IFNOTRUN isdev3 THENHYP there are no devices to run diagnostics on ! ! see note below for the following rule ! IF isdev1 ANDIFRUN dev1diag THENHYP device one is faulty ! IFRUN isdev2 ANDIFRUN dev2diag THENHYP device two is faulty ! IFRUN isdev3 ANDIFRUN dev3diag THENHYP device three is faulty ! IFNOTRUN dev1diag IFNOTRUN dev2diag IFNOTRUN dev3diag IFRUN isdev1 ANDRUN isdev2 THENRUN diag12 ! ! George W. Hageman --7-- INFERENCE -- SOFTMAN ENTERPRIZES -- Dec. 30, 1985 ! IFRUN diag12 THENHYP device two is suspect remove and re-run test ! IFNOTRUN diag12 THENHYP device one is suspect, remove and re-run test ! Note: You have probably noticed that the FOLLOWING STRINGS associated with the RUN KEYWORDS and the IF, AND etc. KEYWORDS are interchangeable. This is due to fact that the TRUTH of a string is kept as a pointer into the string buffer, and therefore have no information concerning their nature and only have meaning when used in conjunction with a KEYWORD. If you are sure that the string "isdev1" will have its truth determined earlier by running the routine "isdev1", Then you may use it as a regular string in later rules, however, if its truth has not been determined then the inference engine will ask you for the truth of the statement "isdev1" rather than running the routine. To be sure use the "RUN" form for the strings which relate to executeables, they will only be run once as it is, so you don't really have to keep them straight. Notice also that if the first rule is not proved by the fact that isdev1 turns up being TRUE and therefore the antecedent statement is FALSE due to the reverse sense of the IFNOTRUN KEYWORD, then the others will not be run until they are encountered in other rules containing them. So be safe and use the RUN forms of the KEYWORDS if you intend the execution of an object. George W. Hageman --8-- INFERENCE -- SOFTMAN ENTERPRIZES -- Dec. 30, 1985 USAGE: Ok, now that we know what all the key words are, how does one go about using an inference engine, and more specifically how does one use this inference engine and what for? People usually use inference engines as part of what are known as expert systems. Expert systems are a study associated with a branch of software engineering known as Artificial Intelligence (AI). (I am probably going to get some heat from that statement). Expert systems are supposed to mimic the way in which human experts deal with a particular physical or mental problem. A clear example is an expert system which could isolate a fault within a complex computer system as well as or almost as well as its human counterpart. It is apparent that the computer expert system would lack much of the tactile resources the human expert would have, but the computer expert could still be of great value when coupled with a novice computer user. In this way the computer expert would rely on the human to perform actions and observations the computer expert is incapable of doing. The computer expert and the novice then could form a team which might perform as well as the human expert alone and at a probably much lower per/hour labor rate. Unfortunately, in order to develop an expert system, one must either be an expert in the area one wants to develop an expert system for or have a ready access to one. Assuming that you are or have found one, the following is a description of how one would use the inference engine and the rule compiler to produce an expert system. Fortunately one of the sticker tasks of developing the inference engine has been done, and all you have to do is develop the rule base, compile it with the rule compiler and use the resultant compiled rule-base file as a parameter when you initiate the inference engine. In reality this is a much tougher job than developing the inference engine. Expert systems generally consist of three parts, a KNOWLEDGE BASE, HUMAN INTERFACE, and an INFERENCE ENGINE. The following is a short description of each: THE RULE or KNOWLEDGE BASE: The rules consisting of ANTECEDENTS and CONSEQUENTS are known as the "KNOWLEDGE BASE" of the expert system. An additional part of the KNOWLEDGE BASE consists of the executeable files and their shared data files. The way the "knowledge engineer" puts these rules together determines how good and/or effective the resultant expert system becomes. The KNOWLEDGE BASE is the smarts of the expert system, and the basic data on which the inference engine is to operate upon. George W. Hageman --9-- INFERENCE -- SOFTMAN ENTERPRIZES -- Dec. 30, 1985 THE HUMAN INTERFACE: The expert system needs a way to ask the human user about the TRUTH or FALSENESS of the antecedents contained in the rule base. This is contained as a part of the inference engine associated with this release. These routines will ask the user whether or not FOLLOWING STRINGS are TRUE or FALSE. Additional human interfaces may be contained in the executeable files. THE INFERENCE ENGINE: The inference engine released with this software is known as a backwards chaining inference engine. It works by identifying consequents and attempting to find rules to prove that each consequent is TRUE. Once a consequent is proved TRUE, it is remembered as being TRUE. Each antecedent which is determined either TRUE or FALSE is remembered so that the user does not have to be asked more than once to verify a particular statement. Remember that if a consequent is not proved TRUE, then it does not necessarily mean that it is FALSE. For more information consult the "inference.str" file which is a preliminary pseudo code description of the inference engine. It is not correct because I have not gone back and up dated it from the implementation effort (Tom De Marco please forgive me) but, it is close enough to provide a basis for understanding the code. I suggest looking at the code to understand how this inference engine works. I have also left in all of the debug statements which I found helpful so by modifying the makefile to include the DEBUG FLAGS, you can observe the inference engine working. This inference engine attempts to prove all of the consequents from the top of the rule base through to the bottom in a linear way if possible. If however, an antecedent is really a consequent of a rule, the inference engine will attempt to prove that consequent even if it occurs later in the rule base. In this sense, the inference engine will exhibit some forward chaining characteristics. There are several good books on the development of expert systems, inference engines and the like. I have included a bibliography which contain the books I consulted to build this one. George W. Hageman --10-- INFERENCE -- SOFTMAN ENTERPRIZES -- Dec. 30, 1985 BUILDING EXPERT SYSTEMS: The builders of expert systems are sometimes known as "knowledge engineers". As the name implies, they deal with the manipulation and representation of knowledge leading to the development of the Knowledge base the inference engine operates upon. In order to develop the knowledge base the knowledge engineer needs either to be an expert in the area for which the expert system is to be developed or, have ready access to a human expert in the field. The inference engine in this distribution accepts knowledge in many ways. The first of which are the rules as discussed above which are relatively simple logical or predicate statements about the TRUTH of well defined consequents. The other is the somewhat complex knowledge representation as contained in the executeable files which may be initiated by the inference engine. In fact, the inference engine and the rule_compiler each can be one of these executeable files so you can have recursive expert systems if you have a mind to! You can even use another executeable to produce a text file of rules, which then can be operated on by the rule-compiler and then fed to another inference engine producing self-modifying or learning expert system. So even though the inference engine is only 12K and the rule compiler 10K these are sufficient enough to produce rather powerful expert systems. To develop the knowledge base the knowledge engineer first must under stand the limitations which are acceptable to the expert system user. For example, if the user of an animal identification expert system is not concerned with whether the expert can differentiate between a snake and a lizard or is not interested in reptiles at all, then the expert system can be simplified by leaving out this knowledge. Once the boundaries of an expert system are well known, the expert system designer can concentrate on how to define the particulars. This software release contains two examples of simple expert systems. The first is the more or less classical animal identification expert, and the second is a weather predictor expert which demonstrates the usage of the IFRUN, ANDTHENRUN, etc. KEYWORDS. George W. Hageman --11-- INFERENCE -- SOFTMAN ENTERPRIZES -- Dec. 30, 1985 ANIMALS: This is a simple expert which can differentiate between only certain types of animals -- Mammals and Birds. And among these two groups it can only tell you that the animal you are thinking about is either a Giraffe, Zebra, Cheeta, Tiger, Penguin, albatross, Duck, and so on. The example has been limited to these few identifications in order to greatly simplify the development effort and to help demonstrate the strategy of developing the rules associated with this simple expert system. The strategy associated with the development of a consistent set of rules which will identify a particular animal given certain physical characteristics to work with is DIVIDE AND CONQUER. The idea being to use rules which build a decision tree where each branch of the tree is formed by a rule which can decide which direction to go at that junction. Since we are obviously dealing with birds and mammals then we can build our root branch or the grossest division as a rule which can differentiate between birds and mammals. Like: ! IF animal gives milk ANDIF animal has hair THEN animal is mammal ! IFNOT animal is mammal THEN animal is bird ! . . Notice that if the animal is not a mammal we automatically assume that it is a bird since this is the domain of our expert system -- it does not consider any other type of animal as a possibility. If we were to include perhaps reptiles then the following might be used instead: ! IF animal gives milk ANDIF animal has hair THEN animal is mammal ! IFNOT animal is mammal AND animal has feathers AND animal lays eggs THEN animal is bird ! IFNOT animal is mammal IFNOT animal is bird THEN animal is reptile ! George W. Hageman --12-- INFERENCE -- SOFTMAN ENTERPRIZES -- Dec. 30, 1985 Again the last category is the default and needs no further definitions because it is within the limitations of the expert system. Further refinement of the decision tree associated with the animals expert should build on the knowledge gained by earlier branching. So one should use the knowledge that the animal has been identified as a bird to further define the animal. An example of the further definition of the type of mammal follows: ! IF animal is mammal ANDIF animal eats meat ANDIF animal eats little vegetation THEN animal is carnivore ! IFNOT animal is carnivore ANDNOT animal eats little vegetation THEN animal is vegetarian ! Finer and finer branching is achieved by this divide and conquer strategy until the leaves of the tree are reached, These leaves are the actual hypothesis which end the search for a particular animal. . . ! IF animal is cat AND animal has tan color AND animal has stripes THENHYP animal is tiger ! IF animal is cat AND animal has tan color AND animal has spots THENHYP animal is cheeta ! . . Notice that "animal is cat" should be a THEN Consequent somewhere or else the inference engine will simply ask you if the "animal is cat" statement is TRUE or not -- which may not be construed as a particularly intelligent thing for an expert system to do. The intelligence represented by the expert system is directly related to the intelligence you give it. However, it is possible to get very confused when there are a large number of rules for a particular expert system and mistakes in logic or the development of circular logic occurs. The first will cause incorrect conclusions to be drawn and the second will cause the inference engine to crash. Circular logic causes the inference engine to run out of stack space. George W. Hageman --13-- INFERENCE -- SOFTMAN ENTERPRIZES -- Dec. 30, 1985 A circular argument is an argument which cannot be resolved because its proof relies on another rule which in turn relies on proving the first statement before it can be proved such as in: ! IF the second one is true THEN the first one is true ! IF the first one is true THEN the second one is true ! Or to expand the concept: ! IF the third one is true THEN the first one is true ! IF the first one is true THEN the second one is true ! IF the second one is true THEN the third on is true ! Usually, when the inference engine tells you that "Stack overflow" has occurred -- this will be the problem. Look at the animal file contained in this release, see how the rules are built and as an exercise add another animal to be differentiated like a platypus, and later add a whole class of animals such as domestic farm animals, or even a division such as reptiles or insects. You will soon notice that your knowledge base will increase very quickly with each set of animals you want your expert to differentiate. With this growth of the knowledge base come real difficulty in keeping the rules correct and non-circular. A strategy for limiting the complexity for these rules is to use the IFRUN or THENRUN capability of this inference engine to fire- up a whole new inference engine which is an expert in one of the major branches of animals. In this manner one only has to make the major decisions associated with a class of animals and then run the expert system which knows how to handle the specific class of animals. George W. Hageman --14-- INFERENCE -- SOFTMAN ENTERPRIZES -- Dec. 30, 1985 For example: ! IF animal has feathers AND animal lays eggs THEN animal is bird THENRUNHYP inference.exe birds.cmp ! IFNOT animal is bird AND animal has hair AND animal gives milk THEN animal is mammal THENRUNHYP inference.exe mammals.cmp ! The files "birds.cmp" and "mammals.cmp" are the resultant compiled files from the text knowledge bases "birds" and "mammals" which the knowledge engineer would need to produce. But, as stated above, these files would represent expert systems knowing only the limited area of birds or mammals and therefore can be greatly simplified. NOTE: inference.exe returns a TRUE value if it has proved anything while it ran, and FALSE if it could not prove anything. With an IBM AT with 512 KBYTES of memory I was able to load four copies of an inference engine simultaneously. A good way to see how many your system can deal with at the same time compile the following test: ! IFRUN INFERENCE.EXE TEST.CMP THENHYP I am done ! If this file is named TEST, then compile it using the following: rulecomp test test.cmp Then, run the inference engine with the test.cmp file as follows: inference test.cmp Notice that when any routine cannot be run for some reason or another, an attempt is made to tell you what went wrong -- out of memory, can't find it, or some other reason, and the routine will be assumed to have returned normally with a TRUE predicate value. This is done so that the inference engine won't simply die at some mysterious point. The "I infer that : I am done" at the top was the last inference engine which could be loaded which could run but could not spawn a new process, the next one down is the last one which could spawn one, and any others below this line plus this one will tell you the number of levels of the inference engine you can run on your system. George W. Hageman --15-- INFERENCE -- SOFTMAN ENTERPRIZES -- Dec. 30, 1985 THE WEATHER EXPERT: The other expert system knowledge base included with this release is a weather predicting expert. This expert system demonstrates the use of executeable files to expand the abilities of the inference engine to deal with other forms of knowledge. Look a the source files for the weather expert, notice how each member of this set of routines uses a common file for the transfer of needed data. The need of a file for this transfer of data is done because it was the only standard form of data transmission which was not machine dependent according to MS-DOS and UNIX operating systems. Specific methods for dealing with this problem can be found for your machine which can greatly speed up this cumbersome data transfer method -- but it works. UNIX and the Microsoft C compiler allows a routine to exit with a value which will be returned to the parent process. This method is used to allow each executeable to return its TRUTH- VALUE or PREDICATE-VALUE back to the inference engine. The routine runRoutine(consequent) performs this task. If you look at the file runrouti.c you can see that this is done with the "exit(value) ;" statement. The values used to indicate the TRUTH and FALSEness of the routine are "RETURN_ROUTINE_TRUE" and "RETURN_ROUTINE_FALSE" as contained in the header file "routine.h". This header file should be included in any routine which returns a TRUE/FALSE value to the inference engine. The strategy for using this method of expanding the knowledge base is essentially the same as that for the animal type expert system, except that it is noticed that the simple form of the knowledge base does not have the capability to perform some of the functions needed. Cases where complex questions or the manipulation of data are necessary must resort to the use of executeable files which can deal with them. Such is the case for the weather predicting expert system. The weather expert must deal with such data as barometric pressure, wind direction, and the current rate of change of the barometric pressure. Additional data such as cloud conditions can be handled by the predicate functions of the inference engine. Again the strategy is to divide and conquer by determining which information needs to be gathered by the executeable portion of the expert system, what routines must be used to convert this data into a form which is usable by the inference engine i.e. TRUE or FALSE, and, what information can be gathered directly by the inference engine. Once these decisions are made then a decision tree can be built in a similar manner to the one built for the animal expert but also incorporating the executeable files where appropriate. Look at the file "weather" and at each of the source files for the executeable portion of the weather expert. George W. Hageman --16-- INFERENCE -- SOFTMAN ENTERPRIZES -- Dec. 30, 1985 Notice that there is a "main" routine (even though all of the programs are stand-a-lone programs and are have the name "main"). This routine is in the file "MESSAGE1.C", and provides the data entry for all of the data needed by the expert system. The routine explains to the user what is needed, checks for reasonable responses, and writes the data to a disk file for later use by the other routines associated with this system. These other routines, when initiated, have the task of reading the disk file produced by the "MESSAGE1.EXE" executeable, check for some conditions, and return "ROUTINE_RETURN_TRUE", if the conditions are met and "ROUTINE_RETURN_FALSE" if they are not. In this manner the knowledge engineer can make expert systems of a higher complexity and usefulness than would otherwise be possible. CONCLUSION: I hope that this short definition of the inference engine is enough to get you started into the fascinating field of AI. There are some useful additions the enthusiastic programmer could make to the inference engine to both enhance its usefulness and its ability to assist in the debugging of knowledge basses. A "Why" function which shows the complete logical path which lead to the question being asked, showing each statement as being known or unknown and if known what its predicate value is, would be very helpful. Further, the addition of different KEYWORDS such as an OR function, might expand the usefulness of the inference engine. I may include these in my next release of this software but If you have made such an addition -- I will include them in the next release and refund your $10.00 if you have been so good as to send it to me. Good luck and if you have any questions or would like to discuss this concept please drop me a line. Thanks, George W. Hageman George W. Hageman --17-- INFERENCE -- SOFTMAN ENTERPRIZES -- Dec. 30, 1985 BIBLIOGRAPHY: The following books and articles were helpful in the development of this inference engine. MVP-FORTH EXPERT SYSTEM TOOLKIT, Jack Park, Mountain View Press, Inc. P.O. Box 4656 Mountain View, CA 94040 Phone: (415)- 961-4130. MVP-FORTH EXPERT-2 TUTORIAL, Mitch Derick and Linda Derick, Mountain View Press. INSIDE F83, C. H. Ting, OFFETE ENTERPRISES, INC. Available from Moutain View Press. Expert Systems and the Weather, Jack Park, Dr. Dobb's Journal, April 1984, pp. 24-28. Programming in Prolog, William F. Clocksin and Christopher S. Mellish, Springer-Verlag LISP, Patrick H. Winston and Berthold Klaus and Paul Horn, Addison Weseley. A special thankyou to Jack Park and the MVP-FORTH EXPERT SYSTEM TOOLKIT. Many of the ideas in this document and the development environment afforded by FORTH were the starting point for many of the ideas developed in this inference engine. If you are into FORTH this is an excellent source of information on the subject. George W. Hageman --18--