Loadstar 163/163.d81/t.universe

Text File | 1998-01-01 | 20.5 KB | 772 lines

   C O R K Y ' S   U N I V E R S E

  Programs and Text by Corky Cochran


 [FENDER'S PREMUMBLE:] I asked for
some small, elegant programs and sure
enough, Corky Cochran of Ontario CA
responded with several useful and
interesting astronomy programs. So,
fool that I am, I bunched five of
them together to make a large
program. The five are actually in
separate PRG files linked together by
a small presenter. All five are quite
similar; you enter data and see
information on the screen. You may
only return to the UNIVERSE presenter
after running an 'experiment'. From
the presenter you may return to
LOADSTAR.

 You [must] run the presenter
(b.universe) to see the programs.
Corky's working on some more programs
like this, so keep an eye out for
them on a future LOADSTAR. Also, just
to be safe, KEEP WATCHING THE SKIES!


 [L U N A R   L O C A T O R]
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 Inspired by Roger Sinnott, Sky &
  Telescope Magazine, April 1994


    LUNAR LOCATOR will tell you
everything you wanted to know about
the moon. But first you have to enter
the date you want the lunar
information for. For the year, use
any year you wish, but if it's before
October 15, 1582, then it's the
Julian calendar you are using. So to
enter the date 1 B.C. you input 0,
for 100 B.C. it's -99 years. You will
also be asked for the month and day.
If you enter something you didn't
want to, you will be given a chance
to change your inputs.

    Then the program will display the
following information about that
date:

 (1) How old the Moon is in days (0-
29).

 (2) What phase the Moon is in for
the input date.

The Moon is said to be in the waxing
phase from New to Full, while it's a
waning Moon from Full to New.

 (3) The Moon's distance from Earth
in radii, from a perigee (closest) of
56 Earth's radii, to an apogee
(farthest) of 64 Earth's radii. This
is calculated using an average of
60.3 radii. Earth's radius is 6378.14
kilometers in length.

 (4) The Moon's distance from Earth
in kilometers. This is a ballpark
figure; the program averages the Moon
distance for its calculations. It's
not off by more than a couple hundred
kilometers.

 (5) The Ecliptic latitude in
degrees. As the Moon orbits Earth,
its orbit varies from 5 degrees above
the ecliptic to -5 degrees below.

 (6) The Moon's celestial longitude,
or where it is in orbit (from 0-360
degrees).

    At this point you can try another
date or return to the UNIVERSE
presenter.

 [ECLIPSES]

    If the Moon is full or new and
the Moon crosses the Ecliptic at
these phases it's eclipse time!
Either a solar or lunar eclipse will
happen somewhere on Earth, as is
displayed on screen.

    The degree of eclipse depends on
two things: the Moon's distance from
Earth, and how close to zero is its
ecliptic latitude. In other words, if
the Moon is in its new phase, and
crosses the ecliptic at or near zero
degrees, you get a solar eclipse. The
same is true for the full Moon and a
lunar eclipse. The distance and
latitude will determine the type of
solar or lunar eclipse you see: an
annual, (Sun only) Total, partial
(both), or penumbra (Moon only). Your
local newspaper or TV News should
have a report as to the exact type it
will be. Periodicals such as the Old
Farmer's Almanac or Sky & Telescope
magazine can be helpful as well.

 [NOTE:] There will be NO solar
eclipses seen from the USA until
August 2017 -- 2024 for Canada.

    Will there be an eclipse
somewhere on Earth soon? (HINT: Feb.
26, 1998, Aug. 21, 1998, both
solar).

    All of these things can be
determined quickly with LUNAR
LOCATOR. I hope you enjoy having the
power to find out all of this
information about the moon on a
particular date.


 [C R A T E R   M A K E R]
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  Inspired by John Kennewell, Sky
 & Telescope Magazine, November 1996

    This program is dedicated to the
memory of the late and great Eugene
Shoemaker (April 28, 1928-July 18,
1997). He died in central Australia
in a head-on vehicular crash. He was
doing research on impact craters, one
of his many loves in life. His wife,
Carolyn, who was with him, has
luckily survived.

    They were the co-discoverers of
Comet Shoemaker-Levy, the one the
broke up into 20 pieces and struck
Jupiter, as well as 31 other comets
and 800 asteriods. He was the man who
taught the Apollo astronauts what to
look for while they were on the moon
-- what rocks to look for and
collect. He also helped on TV to
describe what the astronauts were
finding in their visits to our Moon.

    Recently there have been several
TV movies and much speculating about
objects striking the Earth. Even in
the scientific community the amount
of material that can plummet to Earth
is just now being realized. Over the
last few years, three large objects
have come very close to our home
planet. One passed between the Earth
and Moon!

    There is now a project among
astronomers known as Near-Earth
Asteriod Tracking. It uses an Air
Force satellite-tracking telescope to
search and catalog all the objects
that make close passes by Earth.
Eleanor F. Helin of JPL recently
reported that 10% of the sky has been
searched thus far and 5000 asteriods
have been identified. These asteriods
are about 1000 meters in size, and of
these, seven are a future threat to
planet Earth.

    There are another 800 of smaller
size that were cataloged. Helin has
spent 25 years searching for
asteriods throughout the solar
system. After all, the most plausible
theory on the extinction of the
dinosauars was that it was caused by
an asteriod around 6 miles in
diameter striking Earth 65 million
years ago. In 1972 a very large rock
was seen tearing through the
atmosphere across Canada and the
western part of the U.S. In 1908
something exploded over Tunguska,
Russia, laying waste to an area of
100 square miles.

    But an object that can do real
damage to the Earth has some
limitations on its size and speed.
For instance, if an object is below
50 meters or so in diameter, or it's
made of very light material such as
ice mixed with pebbles (as most
comets are), it probably won't
survive its trip through the
atmosphere. Or if its speed on entry
is very high, it will likely burn up
or explode in the atmosphere. The
high and low parameters to enter in
this program are listed below:

 Object's Size - Must be larger than
49 meters and less than 9999 meters.

 Density - Must be at least 2000
kilograms per cubic meter and less
than 9999. (Earth's crust is 2600
kg's/cu/m on average.)

 Velocity - Must be at least 5
kilometers per second and less than
999.

 Angle of descent - Ranges from 20 to
90 degrees. Below 20 degrees the
object would pass through, or bounce
off of, the atmosphere. 90 degrees =
a vertical dive.

    The program won't allow
parameters outside these limits. You
will be allowed to correct any
mistakes you have entered.

    The following information on the
OBJECT will be displayed:

 Volume - Expressed in cubic meters

 Mass - Expressed in metric tons

 Kinetic Energy - Expressed in
joules

 Explosive Power - Expressed in
kilotons

 Below this will be the data on the
CRATER itself. Two figures are given
for both diameter and depth:

 Actual diameter - How big a hole was
punched out (in kms)

 Apparent diameter - How large it
seems (in kms)

 Actual depth - How deep the punch
was (in kms)

 Apparent depth - How deep it seems
(in kms)

 Material Ejected - How much was
blown out (in cubic kms)

 Ejecta Spread - How far from point
zero the ejecta was blown (in kms)

 A short message will be displayed as
to how much damage the impact would
cause, along with a cross section of
the crater in question.

    The reason for the differences in
actual and apparent sizes is caused
by the material thrown up and out
from the impact. It collects deeper
at the edges. This material will
follow the shape of the crater,
adding to its width. Also, this
material adds height to the
surrounding area making the crater
appear deeper than it actually is.

    At this point you can return to
the UNIVERSE presenter or send
another devastating meteor crashing
down on innocent heads.

    The only thing the program can't
tell you is the disastrous effects of
seismic waves, earthquakes, or
atmospheric shock waves produced by
the object in question. The program
predicts that all objects will strike
a land mass and not water. Experiment
with the program. Try entering the
same data, except change one of the
parameters. How does it affect the
outcome of the crater created? Here
are some sample objects to try.

 [Earth Crossing Asteriods]

 Object     Diameter (meters)
 {SHIFT-*}{SHIFT-*}{SHIFT-*}{SHIFT-*}{SHIFT-*}{SHIFT-*}     {SHIFT-*}{SHIFT-*}{SHIFT-*}{SHIFT-*}{SHIFT-*}{SHIFT-*}{SHIFT-*}{SHIFT-*}{SHIFT-*}{SHIFT-*}{SHIFT-*}{SHIFT-*}{SHIFT-*}{SHIFT-*}{SHIFT-*}{SHIFT-*}{SHIFT-*}
 Phaeton         7000
 Icarus          1400
 Apollo          1400
 Hephaestos      8800
 Midas           200
 Bacchus         1000
 Toro            4800
 Geographos      200
 Dionysus        4000

    Most of these have a density of
between 2000 and 3700 kilograms per
cubic meter. Of course you can always
make up your own meteor or asteroid.


 [S U N  U P  -  S U N   D O W N]
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  Inspired by Roger Sinnott, Sky &
   Telescope Magazine, August 1994

    This program predicts the time
for sunrise and sunset at any given
location on Earth at any given date.
It will give you the azimuth in
degrees of the Sun's direction;
Northeast, Due East, Southeast and so
on.

    After you exit the title screen
you will be asked to enter the
following information:

 YOUR LATITUDE in degrees. For
Southern Cal where I live it is 34.05
but you can just enter 34. Either
will work, but 34.05 will be more
accurate. However, don't go overboard
and enter seconds (such as 34.05.30);
just use hours and minutes of
latitude (34.05).

 YOUR LONGITUDE in degrees. For this
enter the number as a negative. For
my area it's -117.26 or -117 either
works. Again, no seconds should be
added. If you live east of Greenwich
England you enter a positive number.

 TIME ZONE in hours.

 THE DATE. First the year (4 digits),
then the month, then the day. The
program doesn't know the "Thirty days
hath September" rhyme so don't get
tricky and use February 30 or
November 31, unless you want to see
incorrect data displayed.

    You can change your entry if you
want. If it's correct, the computer
will calculate where the Sun will
rise or set on the date and location
entered.

 (1) Sunup is calculated and
displayed in the following manner:
hour:minutes and azimuth in degrees.
Plus, the appropriate directions,
Northeast, Due East, and Southeast
are displayed.

 (2) Sundown is calculated and
displayed as hour:minutes and
azimuth, and the direction of setting
is displayed. Southwest, Due West, or
Northwest.

    At this point you can enter
another date or location, or return
to the UNIVERSE presenter.

    I have added a small feature to
the program which will tell you when
a solstice or equinox occurs. What is
the azimuth of the Sun on these
dates?

    One minor item: When the times
for sunup or sundown are displayed,
if the number of minutes is less than
10 the leading zero will not be
displayed. In other words, 19:2 means
two minutes after 7:00 pm.


 [S H O O T I N G   S T A R S]
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 Inspired by Roger Sinnott, Sky &
Telescope magazine, February 1994.

  Yes, you can photograph meteors as
they streak through the sky! This
program will help you in using the
best equipment to shoot those pics.

    After the title screen you are
asked to enter some information,
depending on the equipment you use.

 (1) f/Ratio of lens

     The f/stop you will use for this
shoot. The lower the number, the
better to gather light. 2.8 is not as
good as 1.8 for pics.

 (2) Focal Length of lens

     Again the smaller the number the
better. A 50 mm lens covers a larger
area of sky than a 300 mm lens will.
The bigger the square degrees of sky
covered the more meteors you will
catch! A 28 mm is better than a 50 mm
lens and so on.

 (3) Select Film/Image Format

     1. 35 mm film
     2. 120 mm film
     3. 4 x 5 format
     4. 8 x 10 format
     5. Schmidt Camera
     6. Fisheye lens (180) degrees

 Press the number that fits the film
or format you will use.

    If you chose any number except 5
the computer will calculate the
Square Degrees that will be covered
by the lens used. Next the
Photographic Efficiency of equipment
used, i.e. the lens and film/format
is displayed. The higher the number
the better. There are five possible
messages that rate your equipment and
the appropriate one is displayed.

 1. Not best equipment to use!
 2. Reduce focal length and/or
    f/stop!
 3. Not too bad!! You can do better!
 4. Optimal equipment for the job!
 5. Exceptional equipment! Click
    away!

 (4) If you are using a Schmidt
Camera you will be asked to input the
square degrees of sky it will cover.
Enter this and the equipment's
Efficiency will be rated.

    At this point you can try
different parameters or return to the
UNIVERSE presenter.

    Here are a few suggestions to
help you get those wonderous photos:

 (1) Either go to the mountains or
anywhere you can get away from city
lights! The further the better!
Altitude also helps get away from any
hazy atmosphere. Hilltops work!

 (2) Use a steady tripod to mount
your camera or equipment onto. Make
sure it's on firm ground, so there's
no movement during your shoot.

 (3) Use the bulb setting on your
camera and a cable release. Attach
the cable release to the shutter
button -- don't advance the film
until the release is connected. Aim
your camera at the area of sky where
the meteors are coming from (most
meteor shower have a radian or point
in the sky from where they seem to
radiate). Try to keep a little
terrain in the shot at the bottom
edge for effect.

 Try tilting the camera on its side
for a few shots; most tripods can
accommodate this. Focus your camera
to infinity. This will also remind
you to remove the lens cap! Using a
macro focusing screen in your camera
helps. Ask at a camera shop about
them. Advance the film and stand
there for a few seconds (allows
vibrations in camera and tripod to
settle) then push the cable in and
lock it down -- the set screw will be
turned down to lock. Expose the film
for 30 seconds.

 Release the cable lock. Why 30
seconds? Any longer and the stars
start to get elongated due to their
movement across the sky. Any shorter
and stars and meteors may not record.
15 seconds is ok if there is a shower
that night and meteors are streaking
everywhere. Advance the film for the
next shot. Also remove any filters
that you normally use on your lens.
(I always use a polarizing filter)

 (4) The film you use MUST be fast,
at least 400 ISO or higher if you can
find it. Either B&W or color works
but color will show the colors that
are found in the night sky. You can
have your film pushed 1 stop to 800
ISO, but not at most photo
developers. Camera stores or Special
developing stores can help.

 B&W films are Kodak T-Max 400 & T-
Max 3200/. Color films are Kodak Pro
400, Royal Gold 1000, and Ektachrome
1600. Fujicolor has Super G 800,
Konica has SR-G 3200. These films are
fast but also have a grainier look
than the slower films. I like to use
the slide film for these photos
(Ektachrome 400 pushed or 1600). It
has more latitude and presents itself
on a screen better than a printed
picture will. At the developing and
printing store the negatives are
balanced for color and exposure. Tiny
dots on a picture that looks
overexposed doesn't print well. It's
printed underexposed and all stars
are white.

 (5) Try to shoot when the moon is
closest to First and Third quarters
or New. A full Moon will blot out the
fainter objects and meteors. So from
last quarter to first quarter is the
prime time for sky photgraphy. But
then meteor showers don't know this
and many times occur on or near a
full Moon. The best you can do is
hope next year will be better. Many
meteor showers are annual events,
occurring for several days at a
stretch, with one day having the
highest incidents of meteors.


 [E X P A N D I N G   C O S M O S]
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 Inspired by Thomas A. Weil, Sky &
Telescope magazine, September 1997

    What is the Hubble parameter?
What does the redshift of light have
to do with the age of the cosmos? Has
the size of space and everything in
it always been the same? If you have
ever pondered any one of these
concepts then this is a program
you'll enjoy!

 [BACKGROUND]

    Did you realize that when you
look at the Sun or Moon, that you are
looking back in time? In fact
everything seen in the universe is
not seen as it is at this very
moment. The Moon is 1.3 light seconds
away, the Sun is 8.3 light minutes
away. Pluto, the farthest planet is 5
light hours away, The nearest other
star to the Sun, Alpha Centauri, is
4.3 light years away. So the light
you see now is that old, or, in other
words, you are seeing the object as
it was that long ago.

     Now as this light is traveling
through space at great distances
(billions of light years) it becomes
shifted further and further to the
red end of the spectrum. This shift
is caused by the expansion of space
itself! This is the cosmic redshift
of the universe at large. What is the
Hubble parameter? This is a measuring
stick for the speed at which all
objects in space appear to be moving
away from each other. The further the
object is away from the observer, the
lower the Hubble parameter that's
measured. Its present day figure is
43.6 kilometers per second per
megaparsec!

    In other words, the universe is
expanding at the rate of 43.6
kilometer per second over a distance
of 1 megaparsec.

    This and the cosmic redshift are
ways to measure space itself. From
these two factors, the age of the
cosmos can be figured using the
formulas that predict the model of
the known cosmos. The Big Bang theory
predicts that the universe will
expand slower as it ages. The Hubble
parameter and the cosmic redshift are
effects of this expansion. Therefore,
what the redshift or Hubble parameter
are at present will tell the age of
the known universe then and now.

    If the Hubble parameter was 654
km/sec/Mps and it's presently at 43.6
then the universe was 1 billion years
old then and is presently 15 billion
years old. If all of this confuses
you, don't worry; try the program
anyway. There are entries for age
only that will calculate the
information required.

    After you exit the title screen
you come to the working screen. The
first question is: Do you want to
figure from the present age of the
cosmos or the Hubble parameter? Press
the A key for age input or the H key
to input the present Hubble
parameter.

    Then the next line asks that you
input either the age -- billion years
or the Hubble parameter of --.-
km/sec/Mps. (depending on your
choice). Next you will be asked if
you want to input the Time then of
the universe or the Cosmic Redshift
of the present cosmos (5.08). The
program will accept any age before
the present age down to .01 billion
years!

     Next is to enter either the THEN
age or the PRESENT Redshift.

     At that point you can start
again if you've entered a parameter
wrong.

    Then the computer calcuates the
following information about the
universe.

 (1) The age of the cosmos now.

 (2) The age of the cosmos then.

 (3) The time it took for the light
to travel between the two ages.

 (4) The scale of the universe then
versus now. How many times larger it
is then it was.

 (5) The redshift of light seen now
from the then distance.

 (6) Distance to object then, as
measured in billions of lightyears.
This is also the point at which the
light you see now started its journey
to here.

 (7) Distance to object at the
expansion rate of space. The distance
the object traveled since the light
was emitted.

 (8) The speed of light the objects
was traveling at back then. In the
program you will see that the object
was traveling at 5 times the speed of
light! Since nothing known in the
universe can travel faster than the
speed of light this is an illusion
caused by the two objects expanding
away from each other. The observer
and the observed. Added in this the
expansion of space itself!

 (9) The speed of light at which they
seem to be traveling apart at now.
This may be higher than the speed of
light again, but lower than the
previous reading from then.

 (10) The Hubble parameter then --
how fast things were flying apart at
in the past. The Big Bang theory
states that space expanded back then
at a much faster rate that today.

 (11) The rate of expansion or the
Hubble parameter in today's
universe.

    At this point you can try another
'experiment' or return to the
UNIVERSE presenter.

    Have fun playing with the cosmos.
By the way, how old does the cosmos
have to be before the Hubble
parameter reaches zero? This program
does not take the effects of gravity
into account, so it won't stop
expanding for hundreds of billions of
years according to this program. I
stopped at 400 billion years and it
was still expanding!