there is = there's there is not = there's not = there isn't
there are = there're there are not = there're not = there aren't
INTERROGATIVE
is there?
are there?
4) THERE IS - IT IS
We use introductory `it' for
(a) time - It's late.
(b) day - It's Monday today.
(c) distance - It isn't far.
(d) weather - It's raining.
(e) easy/nice/better etc. - It's nice of you.
(f) true/certain/strange/odd etc. - It is odd that he hasn't phoned.
HAVE
1) PRESENT TENSE
AFFIRMATIVE NEGATIVE
I have = I've I have not = I've not = I haven't
you have = you've you have not = you've not = you haven't
he
he
she
has = 's she
has not = 's not = hasn't
it
it
we
we
you
have = 've you
have not = 've not = haven't
they
they
INTERROGATIVE
have I? have I not? = haven't I?
have you? have you not? = haven't you?
has he? has he not? = hasn't he?
has she? has she not? = hasn't she?
has it? has it not? = hasn't it?
have we? have we not? = haven't we?
have you? have you not? = haven't you?
have they? have they not? = haven't they?
2) PAST TENSE
AFFIRMATIVE NEGATIVE
I had I had not = hadn't
you had you had not = hadn't
he
he
she
had she
had not = hadn't
it
it
we
we
you
had you
had not = hadn't
they
they
INTERROGATIVE
had I? had I not? = hadn't I?
had you? had you not? = hadn't you?
had he? had he not? = hadn't he?
had she? had she not? = hadn't she?
had it? had it not? = hadn't it?
had we? had we not? = hadn't we?
had you? had you not? = hadn't you?
had they? had they not? = hadn't they?
3) HAVE as an ordinary verb
PRESENT PAST
AFFIRMATIVE have, has had
have got, has got
NEGATIVE have not, has not hadn't
haven't got, hasn't got hadn't got
don't have, doesn't have did't have
INTERROGATIVE have you? has he? had you?
have you got? has he got? had you got?
do you have? does he have? did you have?
CAN - MAY
1) CAN
EXAMPLES: (a) You can leave it here.
You could leave it here whenever you wanted to.
(b) He can speak French fluently.
He could speak French fluently when he was young.
He will be able speak French fluently with more practice.
(a) to express permission or possibility (= may)
could = was/were allowed to
(b) to express ability (= be able to)
could = was/were able to
in future: will be able to
FORMING
can + bare infinitive
2) MAY/MIGHT
EXAMPLES: I may/might go to the cinema tonight.
He may/might tell his wife.
She may not come to the party.
They might not believe your story.
to express possibility in the present or the future
FORMING
may/might + bare infinitive
MUST - HAVE TO - NEED - SHOULD
1) MUST - HAVE TO
EXAMPLES: (a) I must work as hard as I can.
(b) You have to pass a test before you can get a driving license.
Obligation:
(a) I must do something = I think it is necessary or very important
to do something.
(b) I have to do something = it is necessary for me to do something,
I'm obliged to do something.
In the past tense we use `had to' in both cases.
2) MUST NOT
EXAMPLES: You mustn't tell her.
She mustn't go home alone.
USE: prohibition
I mustn't do it = it is important not to do it
it is a bad thing to do
Short form: mustn't
3) NEED NOT
EXAMPLES: You needn't make two copies. One will do.
You needn't pay till the 31st
USE: absence of obligation
I needn't do it = it is not necessary to do it )
Short form: needn't = don't need to
4) SHOULD
EXAMPLES: You should pay on arrival.
She shouldn't work so hard.
`should' is used
- to express someone's obligation or duty
- to indicate a sensible action or to express advice
FORMING
should + bare infinitive
WOULD
1) after "I wish"
EXAMPLES: I wish it would stop raining.
I wish he wouldn't go out every morning.
2) the past of "will"
EXAMPLES: He promised he wouldn't be late.
She said she would come.
3) "would" and "used to"
EXAMPLES:
When we were children, we would get up early and go for a swim.
We would spend the whole morning by the river.
("used to" can replace "would" in this example.)
We use "would + bare infinitive" or "used + infinitive" when we are describing a past routine.
EXAMPLES: I used to smoke cigarettes but now I smoke a pipe.
She used to live in London but now she lives in a small village.
SHORT ANSWERS
1) POLITE ANSWERS
EXAMPLES: Do you smoke? Yes, I do.
No, I don't.
Questions requiring the answer `yes' or `no' should be answered with addition of an auxiliary verb. The answer without it would be less polite. #
2) AGREEMENTS AND DISAGREEMENTS
EXAMPLES: That plane can travel faster than sound.
Yes, it can.
So, it can. (a surprise)
Of course, it can. (obvious)
3) SO - NEITHER - EITHER
EXAMPLES: I am tired. - So am I.
I haven't got any change. - Neither have I.
- I haven't either.
- Nor have I.
QUESTION TAGS
EXAMPLES: (a) Peter won't lend it to you, will he?
Jim wasn't drinking, was he?
Ann doesn't smoke, does she?
You couldn't understand that, could you?
We haven't met before, have we?
John didn't turn up, did he?
(b) Peter smokes a lot, doesn't he?
She told you about that, didn't she?
They have seen the film before, haven't they?
There was enough time to do it, wasn't there?
He could do that for you, couldn't he?
We've just in time, aren't we?
I'm late, aren't I?
Question tags are short additions to sentences, asking for agreement or confirmation.
(a) After negative statements we use the ordinary interrogative.
(b) After affirmative statements we use the negative interrogative.
PRESENT CONTINUOUS
EXAMPLES: I am reading a book.
It is snowing now.
We are staying at Hilton.
The Real Present - something that is happening now.
now
past <
I am resting
> future
It is raining
FORMING
We add `ing' to a verb and use it with the proper form of `to be'
I am writing = I'm writing
you are going = you're going
he is playing = he's playing
she is having = she's having
it is raining = it's raining
we are watching = we're watching
you are singing = you're singing
they are sitting = they're sitting
NEGATIVE
The negative form of `to be' + `-ing' form. t
I am not coming = I'm not coming
you are not playing = you're not playing = you aren't playing
...
See To
be for the short forms
INTERROGATIVE
The interrogative form of `to be' + `-ing' form. 1
am I playing
are you coming
...
More important verbs that are not usually used in continuous form:
love, hate like, dislike
forgive, refuse
want, wish, need, prefer
know, understand
mean, suppose, believe, think (that), feel (that)
remember, forget, recollect
belong to, consist of, contain, possess, own, have (=own)
see, hear, notice, recognize, smell, taste
seem, appear (=seem)
See: Present
Future
PRESENT SIMPLE
EXAMPLES: I go to school every day.
He likes bananas.
It often rains in Wales.
Things that happen every day, sometimes, or all the time. General truth.
Unlike Present Continuous it does not really describe the current action. We often use Present Simple with the following words: always, never, usually, sometimes, often. In questions we use it with `when'.
past now future
<-------------- I do --------------->
FORMING
In the third person we add -s or -es (except auxiliary verbs).
I walk
you swim
he plays but: he can
she goes she may
it rains it should
we work
you dress
they pretend
NEGATIVE
We use `do not' (or, briefly, - don't) with infinitive. In the third person we use `does not' or `doesn't'. \
I do not clean = I don't clean
he does not work = he doesn't work
...
INTERROGATIVE
We use `do' with infinitive changing the word order (`does' in the third person). (
do you play
does she work
...
SIMPLE PAST
EXAMPLES: He arrived yesterday.
The rain stopped one hour ago.
Actions completed in the past at a definite time.
past
now
I did it
> future
He finished the job
FORMING
We add -ed to the infinitive of a regular verb (or -d if the infinitive ends with e). ,
clean +ed cleaned
love +d loved
Sometimes the last letter is repeated. If the infinitive ends with -y it is replaced by -ied &
stop stopped
hurry hurried
Many important verbs are irregular and their past form has to be learnt separately, see Irregular
verbs
NEGATIVE
We use `did not' (or, briefly, -didn't-) with infinitive. L
I did not clean = I didn't clean
he did not work = he didn't work
INTERROGATIVE
We use `did' with infinitive changing the word order. &
did you play
did they arrive
PAST CONTINUOUS
EXAMPLES: He arrived when I was reading a book.
What were you doing at 4 o'clock. - I was reading.
USE
Past action extended over a period of time. During a past action something happened.
I began reading 4.00 Tom arrives I stopped reading
<- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ->
I was reading
FORMING
Past form of `to be' + `-ing' form of a verb.
I was reading
you were swimming
he was writing
she was cooking
it was raining
we were playing
you were singing
they were fishing
NEGATIVE
Negative form of `I was', `you were' etc. + `-ing' form of the verb o
I was not reading = I wasn't reading
you were not swimming = you weren't swimming
...
INTERROGATIVE
Interrogative form of `I was', `you were' etc. + `-ing' form of the verb 3
was I reading ?
were you swimming ?
PRESENT PERFECT
EXAMPLES: They have gone out. (they are not at home now)
He has lost his umbrella. (he cannot find it now)
An action in the past with a result now.
now
- - - - - - - - - - - - ->
action
We are NOT interested in when the action took place. We are interested in its effects on events NOW.
FORMING
The proper form of `to have' + past participle of the verb.
I have worked = I've worked
you have been = you've been
he has gone = he's gone
she has written = she's written
it has rained = it's rained
we have bought = we've bought
you have brought = you've brought
they have put = they've put
NEGATIVE
The negative form of `to have" + past participle. Q
I have not done = I haven't done
he has not eaten = he hasn't eaten
INTERROGATIVE
The interrogative form of `to have' + past participle. (
have you been
has she given
PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS
EXAMPLES: I have been working in this company for two years.
It has been raining since Monday.
A present action which goes on for some time.
past now future
--------------->
I have been doing
FORMING
Present perfect of `to be' + the `-ing' form of the verb
I have been watching = I've been watching
you have been writing = you've been writing
he has been sitting = he's been sitting
she has been cooking = she's been cooking
is has been raining = it's been raining
we have been waiting = we've been waiting
you have been working = you've been working
they have been doing = they've been doing
NEGATIVE
Negative form of `to have' + `been' + `-ing' form.
I have not been trying = I haven't been trying
he has not been standing = he hasn't been standing
...
INTERROGATIVE
Interrogative form of to `to have' + `been' + `-ing' form. 6
have you been learning
has he been trying
PAST PERFECT
EXAMPLES: They dressed after they had washed.
She thanked him for what he had done.
The past perfect is related to a moment in the past in the same way that the present perfect is related to the present moment. In this past moment an action is completed.
a moment
in the past now
- - ->
action
FORMING
had + the past participle
I had gone
you had met
he had seen
she had begun
it had started
we had played
you had brought
they had watched
NEGATIVE
had + not + past participle ^
I had not gone = I hadn't gone
you had not come = you hadn't come
...
INTERROGATIVE
Inversion: had + verb 4
had I gone ?
had you finished ?
...
PRESENT FOR THE FUTURE
1) GOING TO
EXAMPLES: I am going to wash my hair.
It is going to rain.
To express intention of doing something.
To express a feeling of certainty in the mind of the speaker.
FORMING
See Present Continuous. '
2) PRESENT CONTINUOUS FOR THE FUTURE
EXAMPLES: We are going our tomorrow.
Are you coming to see us tonight?
Plans and arrangements (with persons) $
3) SIMPLE PRESENT FOR THE FUTURE
EXAMPLES: The train leaves at 9.15
What time does the performance start?
Timetables, trains etc. (with things)
SIMPLE FUTURE
EXAMPLES: I think I will come.
Shall we dance?
Pure (colourless) future. We do not use it for things already arranged or decided
(see: Present for the Future).
FORMING
shall/will + the verb We use `shall' for first person questions. For the first person both `shall' and `will' are used: `shall' is more formal, `will' is becoming more common. For other persons we use `will'. I
I will/shall go = I'll go
you will see = you'll see
he will come = he'll come
she will cook = she'll cook
it will rain = it'll rain
we will/shall work = we'll work
you will manage = you'll manage
they will take = they'll take
NEGATIVE
will/shall + not + verb |
I will not go = I won't go
I shall not go = I shan't go
you will not come = you won't come
...
INTERROGATIVE
Inversion: shall/will + verb L
Shall I go ?
Will you come
Shall we dance ?
Will ...
FUTURE CONTINUOUS
EXAMPLES: I will be swimming this time next week.
He will be working all night.
Future action extended over a period of time.
FORMING
`shall be' or `will be' + the -ing form of the verb.
I will/shall be going = I'll be going
you will be working = you'll be working
he will be singing = he'll be singing
she will be cooking = she'll be cooking
it will be raining = it'll be raining
we will/shall be working = we'll be working
you will be playing = you'll be playing
they will be teaching = they'll be teaching
NEGATIVE
I shall not be working = I shan't be&working
he will not be learning = he &won't be&learning
INTERROGATIVE
shall I be staying
will he be swimming
PASSIVE VOICE
EXAMPLES: Somebody washed the floor this morning. =
= The floor was washed this morning.
Someone has stolen my bike. =
= My bike has been stolen.
USE
We have an unknown or vague subject.
FORMING
Appropriate form of `to be' + past participle.
present simple am/are/is cleaned
simple past was/were washed
present perfect have/has been stolen
simple future will be allowed
present continuous am/are/is being shown
past continuous was/were being kept
NEGATIVE and INTERROGATIVE
use the negative or interrogative of `to be' + past participle.
REPORTED SPEECH
1) STATEMENT
EXAMPLE
"I am busy". He says
He has told me
that he is busy.
He will tell you
He said that he was busy.
FORMING
When the reporting verb (say, tell, etc.) is in the %
present
present perfect
future
there is no change in the tense of the verbs reported.
When the reporting verbs in the past (said, told, etc.), the words reported are viewed as events happening in the past and the tenses are changed accordingly: [
present
> past
"I've seen this film."
> He said that he had seen this film.
past
> past perfect
"I went home."
> He said that he had gone home.
"I didn't know that."
> He said that he hadn't known that.
future
> would, should
"It will rain."
> He said it would rain.
2) IMPERATIVE
EXAMPLE
"Open the door." She asked me to open the door.
FORMING
In reported speech imperatives become infinitive phrases.
3) QUESTIONS
EXAMPLE
"What is the matter?"
> He asked me what the matter was.
There is no inversion as in a simple question. The word order is the same as in a statement.
EXAMPLE
"Do you like my new has?"
> She asked if I liked her new hat.
She asked whether I liked her new hat.
If the question is of the type that takes `yes' or `no' as answer, we use `if' or `whether' as a link.
EXAMPLE
"Shall we have time to play?"
> They asked if they would have
time to play.
In questions beginning with `shall' expressing pure future `shall' becomes `if he would', `if she would' etc.
EXAMPLE
"Shall I open the window?"
> He asked if he should open the window.
In questions beginning with `shall' expressing request `shall' becomes `if he should', `if she should' etc.
INFINITIVE
EXAMPLES: 1) They refused to pay. I would like to go.
2) He made her cry.
3) They invited me to stay with them.
We have two forms: infinitive (`to cry') and bare infinitive (`cry'). f
1) A list of verbs which are followed by the `to' form:
want promise decide remember
hope refuse plan forget
choose offer learn pretend
seem happen agree manage
try demand claim appear
prove prepare
and the construction:
would like would prefer would hate would love
2) A list of verbs which are followed by the bare infinitive:
make feel see can shall must
let hear watch may will do
3) A list of verbs which are used in the construction: verb + object + to
advise allow ask command enable
encourage expect forbid force invite
oblige order permit persuade remind
request teach tell tempt want
warn
GERUND
EXAMPLES: Standing in queues is a waste of time.
His hobby is dancing.
The `-ing' form of a verb can have the force of a noun (it is then called the Gerund).
A list of verbs which are followed by the Gerund:
like mind appreciate suggest
love detest understand mention
enjoy hate consider practise
excuse give up deny can't help
forgive stop risk can't resist
recollect finish postpone can't stand
GERUND and INFINITIVE
A list of verbs which can either infinitive or gerund.
* marks the verbs which have the same meaning in both cases.
advise* agree allow* begin* can bear
continue* forget hate intend* like
love mean need permit prefer
propose recommend* regret remember require
start* stop try used to want
CONDITIONAL
1) TYPE 1
EXAMPLES: If you hurt me, I will scream.
He will come if you ask him.
The action in the `if' clause (condition) is quite probable.
The meaning is future or present.
FORMING
The `if clause is in a present tense.
The main clause is in the future tense. It is also in
the present tense for words `can', `must', etc.
(You can go tomorrow if you like.)
2) TYPE 2
EXAMPLES: (a) If I had a lawn-mower I would lend it to you.
(b) If he tried to blackmail me I would call the police.
When the supposition in the `if' clause is contrary to known facts. -(a)
When we do not expect the action in the `if' clause to happen. (b)
This includes ureal `ifs'
(If I were you I would do that.)
The meaning is present or future.
FORMING
The `if' clause is in the past tense.
The main clause is in the `would'+infinitive - form.
3) TYPE 3
EXAMPLES: If I had known that you were coming I would have met you
at the station.
The time is past and the condition cannot be fulfilled because the action in the `if' clause did not happen. p
FORMING
The `if' clause is in the past perfect.
The main clause is in the `would have' + infinitive - form.
QUESTIONS
1) We usually make questions by changing the word order.
EXAMPLES: Are we late?
Where has Mary gone?
When will he be here?
2) In simple present questions we use do/does.
In simple past questions we use `did'.
EXAMPLES: Do you smoke?
What time does she get up?
When did they leave?
What did you have for lunch?
3) If who/what/which is the subject of the sentence we do not use
do/does/did.
EXAMPLES: - who is the object - who is the subject
Jack loves someone. Someone loves Jack.
Who does Jack love? Who loves Jack?
NOUN - SINGULAR/PLURAL
We usually form plural by adding `s': cat - cats
Other plural forms: x
1) `es' fox - foxes
2) `ies' spy - spies
3) `ves' wife - wives
4) vowel change: man - men, tooth - teeth
Some words do not change: fruit, sheep. 1
Some words are always plural: police, scissors. '
See also Noun
Countable/Uncountable
NOUN - COUNTABLE/UNCOUNTABLE
The nouns that have plural are called "countable" (objects that can be counted) and those that have not are called "uncountable".
Uncountable nouns:
1) Names of substances: bread, water, gold, etc.
2) Abstract nouns: joy, hope, information, news, etc.
3) Other nouns: luggage, furniture, weather, etc.
Uncountable nouns are not used with a/an. /
A great many nouns can function in both ways: `
EXAMPLE: I must ask for help. (uncountable)
A good map may be a help. (countable)
NOUN - POSSESSIVE CASE
EXAMPLE: the girl's room (the room of the girl)
the girls' room (the room of the girls)
your mother-in-law's umbrella
FORMING
With singular nouns and plural nouns not ending with `s' we use -`s. A single apostrophe is used with plural nouns ending with `s'. In noun compounds the last word takes 's.
USAGE
's or ' is usually use for people and animals,
`of' is used for other objects; it may replace almost any possesive case.
PRONOUNS
EXAMPLES: I can see my face in the mirror. This book is mine.
He is looking at me.
I am doing all the shopping myself.
FORMING:
I my (mine) me myself
you your (yours) you yourself
he his (his) him himself
she her (hers) her herself
it its (its) it itself
we our (ours) us ourselves
you your (yours) you yourselves
they their (theirs) them themselves
ARTICLES
1) THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE a/an
It is used in singular with countable nouns. Z
Before a noun beginning with a consonant or a vowel with a consonant sound we use `a'. '
EXAMPLES: a boy
a union
Before a noun beginning with a vowel or with a mute `h' we use `an' )
EXAMPLES: an aunt
an hour
2) THE DEFINITE ARTICLE the
It is used with specific examples of things that are unique or have been introduced (defined) before. The nouns that are made specific by the context are also accompanied by `the'. It can be also used in plural and with uncountable nouns. 0
We do not use `the' in the following phrases:
go to school, be at school
go to work, be at work
go to church (to pray)
go to bed (to sleep)
go to hospital (when ill)
We use `the' in the following situations:
the cinema, the theatre
the doctor, the dentist
the station
go to the hospital (to visit somebody)
go to the church (to see it)
the rich, the poor
QUANTIFIERS
1) SOME T
EXAMPLES: There are some chairs in the room.
Would you like some tea?
In positive sentences
2) ANY a
EXAMPLES: There aren't any eggs in the fridge.
Are there any pictures in this book?
In negative sentences and in most questions.
3) NO, NONE 8
EXAMPLES: I've got no money = I haven't got any money. 1
"How much money have you got?" "None."
4) MUCH, MANY, A LOT OF, LITTLE, FEW
EXAMPLES: We've got a lot of money.
We haven't got much money.
We have many coins.
We have a little money.
We have too few coins.
with countable nouns: many, a lot of (lots of), few with uncountable nouns: much, a lot of (lots of), little #
5) LITTLE - A LITTLE, FEW - A FEW }
a little = some amount
little = too little, very little
a few = a reasonable numer of
few = too few, very few
ADVERB -USAGE
EXAMPLES: It is raining terribly.
They were listening carefully.
He is snoring loudly
An adverb tells us about a verb.
FORMING
adjective + ly = adverb ^
angry angrily
quiet quietly
careful carefully
good well
His English is good. He speaks English well. (Note: well can be used as adjective. Example: She is well.) ,
ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS WITH THE SAME FORM
EXAMPLES:
His job is very hard. He works very hard.
7.10 Warsaw is a fast train. The train went fast.
Draw a straight line. They went straight home.
This is a wrong answer. He led us wrong.
1) STILL
something is the same as before - the action continues. H
EXAMPLES: He is still asleep.
Do you still live in London?
`still' is placed after the verb "be" but before other verbs.
2) YET
up to the time of speaking t
EXAMPLES: He hasn't finished his homework yet.
Has he come yet?
Are you ready? No, not yet.
"yet" is chiefly used with the negative and in questions. It is often used in the Present Perfect. It is normally placed at the end of the sentence.
3) ENOUGH
is an adverb of degree. It modifies an adjective or another adverb.
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