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- Using objects
-
- Objects are user-defined types which are associated with user-
- defined functions to manipulate them. Object types are defined
- similarly to structures in C, and consist of one or more elements.
- The advantage of an object is that the user-defined routines are
- automatically called by the calculator for various operations,
- such as addition, multiplication, and printing. Thus they can be
- manipulated by the user as if they were just another kind of number.
-
- An example object type is "surd", which represents numbers of the form
-
- a + b*sqrt(D),
-
- where D is a fixed integer, and 'a' and 'b' are arbitrary rational
- numbers. Addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division can be
- performed on such numbers, and the result can be put unambiguously
- into the same form. (Complex numbers are an example of surds, where
- D is -1.)
-
- The "obj" statement defines either an object type or an actual
- variable of that type. When defining the object type, the names of
- its elements are specified inside of a pair of braces. To define
- the surd object type, the following could be used:
-
- obj surd {a, b};
-
- Here a and b are the element names for the two components of the
- surd object. An object type can be defined more than once as long
- as the number of elements and their names are the same.
-
- When an object is created, the elements are all defined with zero
- values. A user-defined routine should be provided which will place
- useful values in the elements. For example, for an object of type
- 'surd', a function called 'surd' can be defined to set the two
- components as follows:
-
- define surd(a, b)
- {
- local x;
-
- obj surd x;
- x.a = a;
- x.b = b;
- return x;
- }
-
- When an operation is attempted for an object, user functions with
- particular names are automatically called to perform the operation.
- These names are created by concatenating the object type name and
- the operation name together with an underscore. For example, when
- multiplying two objects of type surd, the function "surd_mul" is
- called.
-
- The user function is called with the necessary arguments for that
- operation. For example, for "surd_mul", there are two arguments,
- which are the two numbers. The order of the arguments is always
- the order of the binary operands. If only one of the operands to
- a binary operator is an object, then the user function for that
- object type is still called. If the two operands are of different
- object types, then the user function that is called is the one for
- the first operand.
-
- The above rules mean that for full generality, user functions
- should detect that one of their arguments is not of its own object
- type by using the 'istype' function, and then handle these cases
- specially. In this way, users can mix normal numbers with object
- types. (Functions which only have one operand don't have to worry
- about this.) The following example of "surd_mul" demonstrates how
- to handle regular numbers when used together with surds:
-
- define surd_mul(a, b)
- {
- local x;
-
- obj surd x;
- if (!istype(a, x)) {
- /* a not of type surd */
- x.a = b.a * a;
- x.b = b.b * a;
- } else if (!istype(b, x)) {
- /* b not of type surd */
- x.a = a.a * b;
- x.b = a.b * b;
- } else {
- /* both are surds */
- x.a = a.a * b.a + D * a.b * b.b;
- x.b = a.a * b.b + a.b * b.a;
- }
- if (x.b == 0)
- return x.a; /* normal number */
- return x; /* return surd */
- }
-
- In order to print the value of an object nicely, a user defined
- routine can be provided. For small amounts of output, the print
- routine should not print a newline. Also, it is most convenient
- if the printed object looks like the call to the creation routine.
- For output to be correctly collected within nested output calls,
- output should only go to stdout. This means use the 'print'
- statement, the 'printf' function, or the 'fprintf' function with
- 'files(1)' as the output file. For example, for the "surd" object:
-
- define surd_print(a)
- {
- print "surd(" : a.a : "," : a.b : ")" : ;
- }
-
- It is not necessary to provide routines for all possible operations
- for an object, if those operations can be defaulted or do not make
- sense for the object. The calculator will attempt meaningful
- defaults for many operations if they are not defined. For example,
- if 'surd_square' is not defined to square a number, then 'surd_mul'
- will be called to perform the squaring. When a default is not
- possible, then an error will be generated.
-
- Please note: Arguments to object functions are always passed by
- reference (as if an '&' was specified for each variable in the call).
- Therefore, the function should not modify the parameters, but should
- copy them into local variables before modifying them. This is done
- in order to make object calls quicker in general.
-
- The double-bracket operator can be used to reference the elements
- of any object in a generic manner. When this is done, index 0
- corresponds to the first element name, index 1 to the second name,
- and so on. The 'size' function will return the number of elements
- in an object.
-
- The following is a list of the operations possible for objects.
- The 'xx' in each function name is replaced with the actual object
- type name. This table is displayed by the 'show objfuncs' command.
-
- Name Args Comments
-
- xx_print 1 print value, default prints elements
- xx_one 1 multiplicative identity, default is 1
- xx_test 1 logical test (false,true => 0,1),
- default tests elements
- xx_add 2
- xx_sub 2 subtraction, default adds negative
- xx_neg 1 negative
- xx_mul 2
- xx_div 2 non-integral division, default multiplies
- by inverse
- xx_inv 1 multiplicative inverse
- xx_abs 2 absolute value within given error
- xx_norm 1 square of absolute value
- xx_conj 1 conjugate
- xx_pow 2 integer power, default does multiply,
- square, inverse
- xx_sgn 1 sign of value (-1, 0, 1)
- xx_cmp 2 equality (equal,non-equal => 0,1),
- default tests elements
- xx_rel 2 inequality (less,equal,greater => -1,0,1)
- xx_quo 2 integer quotient
- xx_mod 2 remainder of division
- xx_int 1 integer part
- xx_frac 1 fractional part
- xx_inc 1 increment, default adds 1
- xx_dec 1 decrement, default subtracts 1
- xx_square 1 default multiplies by itself
- xx_scale 2 multiply by power of 2
- xx_shift 2 shift left by n bits (right if negative)
- xx_round 2 round to given number of decimal places
- xx_bround 2 round to given number of binary places
- xx_root 3 root of value within given error
- xx_sqrt 2 square root within given error
-
-
- Also see the library files:
-
- dms.cal
- mod.cal
- poly.cal
- quat.cal
- surd.cal
-