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-
- (NOTE: This article is excerpted from THE MODEM REFERENCE,
- a book written by Michael A. Banks, to be published in
- August, 1988, by Brady Books/Simon & Schuster. Permission
- is granted to post this article on bulletin board systems
- and online services provided this notice and the copyright
- notice are included.
- If you want to know more about how computer communications
- works, ask for the book (ISBN# 0-13-586646-4) at your
- local B. Dalton's or independent bookstore. THE MODEM
- REFERENCE is recommended by a number of reviewers, including
- Jerry Pournelle, who said in his May, 1988, BYTE column,
- "If you're thinking of getting into computer communications,
- get this book first."
-
- BITS, BAUD RATE, AND BPS
- Taking the Mystery Out of Modem Speeds
-
- by Michael A. Banks
-
-
- (Copyright, 1988, Michael A. Banks)
-
- Modem transmission speed is the source of a lot of confusion,
- even among otherwise informed computer and modem users. The root
- of the problem is the fact that the terms "baud" and "bits per
- second" are used interchangeably and indiscriminately. I strongly
- suspect this is a result of the fact that it's easier to say
- "baud" than "bits per second," though misinformation has a hand in
- it, too.
- If you've ever found yourself confused by the relationship
- between bits and baud rate, or if you think that a modem's baud
- rate is the same as the number of bits or characters it transmits
- per second, please read this article carefully; I guarantee to
- clear up the confusion and disabuse you of any false concepts ...
-
- Bits per second (bps)
- Bits per second is a measure of the number of data bits
- (digital 0's and 1's) transmitted each second in a communications
- channel. This is sometimes referred to as "bit rate."
- Individual characters (letters, numbers, etc.), also referred
- to as bytes, are composed of several bits.
- While a modem's bit rate is tied to its baud rate, the two
- are not the same, as explained below.
-
- Baud rate
- Baud rate is a measure of the number of times per second a
- signal in a communications channel varies, or makes a transition
- between states (states being frequencies, voltage levels, or phase
- angles). One baud is one such change. Thus, a 300-baud modem's
- signal changes state 300 times each second, while a 600-baud
- modem's signal changes state 600 times per second. This does not
- necessarily mean that a 300-baud and a 600-baud modem transmit 300
- and 600 bits per second, as you'll learn in a few lines.
-
- Calculating bits per second
- Depending on the modulation technique used, a modem can
- transmit one bit--or more or less than one bit--with each baud, or
- change in state. Or, to put it another way, one change of state
- can transmit one bit--or more or less than one bit.
- As I mentioned earlier, the number of bits a modem transmits
- per second is directly related to the number of bauds that occur
- each second, but the numbers are not necessarily the same.
- To illustrate this, first consider a modem with a baud rate
- of 300, using a transmission technique called FSK (Frequency Shift
- Keying, in which four different frequencies are turned on and off
- to represent digital 0 and 1 signals from both modems). When FSK
- is used, each baud (which is, a gain, a change in state) transmits
- one bit; only one change in state is required to send a bit.
- Thus, the modem's bps rate is also 300:
-
-
- 300 bauds per second X 1 bit per baud = 300 bps
-
-
- Similarly, if a modem operating at 1200 baud were to use one
- change in state to send each bit, that modem's bps rate would be
- 1200. (There are no 1200 baud modems, by the way; remember that.
- This is only a demonstrative and hypothetical example.)
- Now, consider a hypothetical 300-baud modem using a
- modulation technique that requires two changes in state to send
- one bit, which can also be viewed as 1/2 bit per baud. Such a
- modem's bps rate would be 150 bps:
-
-
- 300 bauds per second X 1/2 baud per bit = 150 bps
-
-
- To look at it another way, bits per second can also be
- obtained by dividing the modem's baud rate by the number of
- changes in state, or bauds, required to send one bit:
-
-
- 300 baud
- --------------- = 150 bps
- 2 bauds per bit
-
-
- Now let's move away from the hypothetical and into reality,
- as it exists in the world of modulation.
- First, lest you be misled into thinking that "any 1200 baud
- modem" should be able to operate at 2400 bps with a two-bits-per-
- baud modulation technique, remember that I said there are no 1200
- baud modems. Medium- and high-speed modems use baud rates that
- are lower than their bps rates. Along with this, however, they
- use multiple-state modulation to send more than one bit per baud.
- For example, many 300/1200 bps modems operate at 300 baud and
- use a modulation technique called phase modulation that transmits
- four bits per baud. Such modems are capable of 1200 bps
- operation, but not 2400 bps because they are not 1200 baud modems;
- they use a baud rate of 300. So:
-
-
- 300 baud X 4 bits per baud = 1200 bps
-
- or
-
- 300 baud
- ------------------ = 1200 bps
- 1/4 baud per bit
-
-
- (Some 1200-bps modems use a modulation technique that sends
- two bits per baud, in which case they operate at 600 baud.)
- Similarly, 2400 bps modems that conform to the CCITT V.22
- recommendation (virtually all of them) actually use a baud rate of
- 600 when they operate at 2400 bps. However, they also use a
- modulation technique that transmits four bits per baud:
-
-
- 600 baud X 4 bits per baud = 2400 bps
-
- or
-
- 600 baud
- ------------------ = 2400 bps
- 1/4 baud per bit
-
-
- Thus, a 1200-bps modem is not a 1200-baud modem, nor is a
- 2400-bps modem a 2400-baud modem.
- Now let's take a look at 9600-bps modems. Most of these
- operate at 2400 baud, but (again) use a modulation technique that
- yields four bits per baud. Thus:
-
-
- 2400 baud X 4 bits per baud = 9600 bps
-
- or
-
- 2400 baud
- ------------------ = 9600 bps
- 1/4 baud per bit
-
-
-
- Characters per second (cps)
- Characters per second is a measure of the number of
- characters (letters, numbers, spaces, and symbols) transmitted
- over a communications channel in one second. Cps is often the
- bottom line in rating data transmission speed, and a more
- convenient way of thinking about data transfer than baud- or bit-
- rate.
- Determining the number of characters transmitted per second
- is easy: simply divide the bps rate by the number of bits per
- character. You must of course take into account the fact that
- more than just the bits that make up the binary digit representing
- a character are transmitted when a character is sent from one
- system to another. In fact, up to 10 bits may be transmitted for
- each character during ASCII transfer, whether 7 or 8 data bits are
- used. This is because what are called start- and stop-bits are
- added to characters by a sending system to enable the receiving
- system to determine which groups of bits make up a character. In
- addition, a system usually adds a parity bit during 7-bit ASCII
- transmission. (The computer's serial port handles the addition of
- the extra bits, and all extra bits are stripped out at the
- receiving end.)
- So, in asynchronous data communication, the number of bits
- per character is usually 10 (either 7 data bits, plus a parity
- bit, plus a start bit and a stop bit, or 8 data bits plus a start
- bit and a stop bit). Thus:
-
-
- 300 bps
- ----------------------- = 30 characters per second
- 10 bits per character
-
-
- 1200 bps
- ----------------------- = 120 characters per second
- 10 bits per character
-
-
- 2400 bps
- ----------------------- = 240 characters per second
- 10 bits per character
-
-
-
- Common speeds
- The most commonly-used communications rates for dial-up
- systems (BBSs and online services like DELPHI) are 300 and 1200
- bps. A few older systems--especially Telex systems--communicate
- at 110 bps, but these are gradually going the way of the dinosaur.
- 2400, 4800 and 9600 bps modems are generally available, but few
- online services or BBSs accommodate them. This will be changing
- in the near future, however, with the cost of high-speed modem
- technology decreasing as the demand for it increases.
- Modems with even higher bps rates are manufactured (19,200
- and up) but these are not used with dial-up systems; the upper
- limit on asynchronous data transmission via voice-grade telephone
- lines appears to be 9600 bps. The use of higher transmission
- rates requires special dedicated lines that are "conditioned"
- (i.e., shielded from outside interference) as well as expensive
- modulation and transmission equipment.
- If nothing else, I hope the examples here have shown you just
- why baud rate is not always equivalent to bps rate. (And if
- anyone who tries to sell a modem to you tells you otherwise,
- you'll do well to take your business elsewhere.) When you're
- considering a particular modem for purchase, look for its bps
- rate, rather than its baud rate, and use the bps rate to determine
- how many characters per second the modem can actually send.
- #
-
- Michael A. Banks (KZIN on DELPHI) has published some 700
- magazine articles and short stories. He's also written 17 books
- on topics ranging from telecommunications (most recently, DELPHI:
- The Official Guide, and The Modem Book, from Brady Books/Simon &
- Schuster), to science fiction novels.
-