GNU Make

A Program for Directing Recompilation

by Richard M. Stallman and Roland McGrath

Edition 0.26 Beta,

last updated 20 January 1990,

for make, Version 3.58 Beta.

Copyright © 1988, 1989, 1990 Free Software Foundation, Inc.

This is Edition 0.26 Beta of the GNU Make Manual,
last updated 20 January 1990,
for make Version 3.58 Beta.

Published by the Free Software Foundation
675 Massachusetts Avenue,
Cambridge, MA 02139 USA
Printed copies are available for $10 each.

Permission is granted to make and distribute verbatim copies of this manual provided the copyright notice and this permission notice are preserved on all copies.

Permission is granted to copy and distribute modified versions of this manual under the conditions for verbatim copying, provided also that the section entitled “GNU General Public License” is included exactly as in the original, and provided that the entire resulting derived work is distributed under the terms of a permission notice identical to this one.

Permission is granted to copy and distribute translations of this manual into another language, under the above conditions for modified versions, except that the text of the translation of the section entitled “GNU General Public License” must be approved for accuracy by the Foundation.

1 Overview of make

The purpose of the make utility is to determine automatically which pieces of a large program need to be recompiled, and issue the commands to recompile them. This manual describes the GNU implementation of make, which was implemented by Richard Stallman and Roland McGrath.

Our examples show C programs, since they are most common, but you can use make with any programming language whose compiler can be run with a shell command. In fact, make is not limited to programs. You can use it to describe any task where some files must be updated automatically from others whenever the others change.

To prepare to use make, you must write a file called the makefile that describes the relationships among files in your program, and the states the commands for updating each file. In a program, typically the executable file is updated from object files, which are in turn made by compiling source files.

Once a suitable makefile exists, each time you change some source files, this simple shell command:

make

suffices to perform all necessary recompilations. The make program uses the makefile data base and the last-modification times of the files to decide which of the files need to be updated. For each of those files, it issues the commands recorded in the data base.

GNU GENERAL PUBLIC LICENSE

Version 1, February 1989

Copyright © 1989 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
675 Mass Ave, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA

Everyone is permitted to copy and distribute verbatim copies
of this license document, but changing it is not allowed.

Preamble

The license agreements of most software companies try to keep users at the mercy of those companies. By contrast, our General Public License is intended to guarantee your freedom to share and change free software—to make sure the software is free for all its users. The General Public License applies to the Free Software Foundation’s software and to any other program whose authors commit to using it. You can use it for your programs, too.

When we speak of free software, we are referring to freedom, not price. Specifically, the General Public License is designed to make sure that you have the freedom to give away or sell copies of free software, that you receive source code or can get it if you want it, that you can change the software or use pieces of it in new free programs; and that you know you can do these things.

To protect your rights, we need to make restrictions that forbid anyone to deny you these rights or to ask you to surrender the rights. These restrictions translate to certain responsibilities for you if you distribute copies of the software, or if you modify it.

For example, if you distribute copies of a such a program, whether gratis or for a fee, you must give the recipients all the rights that you have. You must make sure that they, too, receive or can get the source code. And you must tell them their rights.

We protect your rights with two steps: (1) copyright the software, and (2) offer you this license which gives you legal permission to copy, distribute and/or modify the software.

Also, for each author’s protection and ours, we want to make certain that everyone understands that there is no warranty for this free software. If the software is modified by someone else and passed on, we want its recipients to know that what they have is not the original, so that any problems introduced by others will not reflect on the original authors’ reputations.

The precise terms and conditions for copying, distribution and modification follow.

1. This License Agreement applies to any program or other work which contains a notice placed by the copyright holder saying it may be distributed under the terms of this General Public License. The “Program”, below, refers to any such program or work, and a “work based on the Program” means either the Program or any work containing the Program or a portion of it, either verbatim or with modifications. Each licensee is addressed as “you”.
2. You may copy and distribute verbatim copies of the Program’s source code as you receive it, in any medium, provided that you conspicuously and appropriately publish on each copy an appropriate copyright notice and disclaimer of warranty; keep intact all the notices that refer to this General Public License and to the absence of any warranty; and give any other recipients of the Program a copy of this General Public License along with the Program. You may charge a fee for the physical act of transferring a copy.
3. You may modify your copy or copies of the Program or any portion of it, and copy and distribute such modifications under the terms of Paragraph 1 above, provided that you also do the following:
   • cause the modified files to carry prominent notices stating that you changed the files and the date of any change; and
   • cause the whole of any work that you distribute or publish, that in whole or in part contains the Program or any part thereof, either with or without modifications, to be licensed at no charge to all third parties under the terms of this General Public License (except that you may choose to grant warranty protection to some or all third parties, at your option).
   • If the modified program normally reads commands interactively when run, you must cause it, when started running for such interactive use in the simplest and most usual way, to print or display an announcement including an appropriate copyright notice and a notice that there is no warranty (or else, saying that you provide a warranty) and that users may redistribute the program under these conditions, and telling the user how to view a copy of this General Public License.
   • You may charge a fee for the physical act of transferring a copy, and you may at your option offer warranty protection in exchange for a fee.

   Mere aggregation of another independent work with the Program (or its derivative) on a volume of a storage or distribution medium does not bring the other work under the scope of these terms.

4. You may copy and distribute the Program (or a portion or derivative of it, under Paragraph 2) in object code or executable form under the terms of Paragraphs 1 and 2 above provided that you also do one of the following:
   • accompany it with the complete corresponding machine-readable source code, which must be distributed under the terms of Paragraphs 1 and 2 above; or,
   • accompany it with a written offer, valid for at least three years, to give any third party free (except for a nominal charge for the cost of distribution) a complete machine-readable copy of the corresponding source code, to be distributed under the terms of Paragraphs 1 and 2 above; or,
   • accompany it with the information you received as to where the corresponding source code may be obtained. (This alternative is allowed only for noncommercial distribution and only if you received the program in object code or executable form alone.)

   Source code for a work means the preferred form of the work for making modifications to it. For an executable file, complete source code means all the source code for all modules it contains; but, as a special exception, it need not include source code for modules which are standard libraries that accompany the operating system on which the executable file runs, or for standard header files or definitions files that accompany that operating system.

5. You may not copy, modify, sublicense, distribute or transfer the Program except as expressly provided under this General Public License. Any attempt otherwise to copy, modify, sublicense, distribute or transfer the Program is void, and will automatically terminate your rights to use the Program under this License. However, parties who have received copies, or rights to use copies, from you under this General Public License will not have their licenses terminated so long as such parties remain in full compliance.
6. By copying, distributing or modifying the Program (or any work based on the Program) you indicate your acceptance of this license to do so, and all its terms and conditions.
7. Each time you redistribute the Program (or any work based on the Program), the recipient automatically receives a license from the original licensor to copy, distribute or modify the Program subject to these terms and conditions. You may not impose any further restrictions on the recipients’ exercise of the rights granted herein.
8. The Free Software Foundation may publish revised and/or new versions of the General Public License from time to time. Such new versions will be similar in spirit to the present version, but may differ in detail to address new problems or concerns.

   Each version is given a distinguishing version number. If the Program specifies a version number of the license which applies to it and “any later version”, you have the option of following the terms and conditions either of that version or of any later version published by the Free Software Foundation. If the Program does not specify a version number of the license, you may choose any version ever published by the Free Software Foundation.

9. If you wish to incorporate parts of the Program into other free programs whose distribution conditions are different, write to the author to ask for permission. For software which is copyrighted by the Free Software Foundation, write to the Free Software Foundation; we sometimes make exceptions for this. Our decision will be guided by the two goals of preserving the free status of all derivatives of our free software and of promoting the sharing and reuse of software generally.
10. BECAUSE THE PROGRAM IS LICENSED FREE OF CHARGE, THERE IS NO WARRANTY FOR THE PROGRAM, TO THE EXTENT PERMITTED BY APPLICABLE LAW. EXCEPT WHEN OTHERWISE STATED IN WRITING THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND/OR OTHER PARTIES PROVIDE THE PROGRAM “AS IS” WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EITHER EXPRESSED OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. THE ENTIRE RISK AS TO THE QUALITY AND PERFORMANCE OF THE PROGRAM IS WITH YOU. SHOULD THE PROGRAM PROVE DEFECTIVE, YOU ASSUME THE COST OF ALL NECESSARY SERVICING, REPAIR OR CORRECTION.
11. IN NO EVENT UNLESS REQUIRED BY APPLICABLE LAW OR AGREED TO IN WRITING WILL ANY COPYRIGHT HOLDER, OR ANY OTHER PARTY WHO MAY MODIFY AND/OR REDISTRIBUTE THE PROGRAM AS PERMITTED ABOVE, BE LIABLE TO YOU FOR DAMAGES, INCLUDING ANY GENERAL, SPECIAL, INCIDENTAL OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES ARISING OUT OF THE USE OR INABILITY TO USE THE PROGRAM (INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO LOSS OF DATA OR DATA BEING RENDERED INACCURATE OR LOSSES SUSTAINED BY YOU OR THIRD PARTIES OR A FAILURE OF THE PROGRAM TO OPERATE WITH ANY OTHER PROGRAMS), EVEN IF SUCH HOLDER OR OTHER PARTY HAS BEEN ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGES.

Appendix: How to Apply These Terms to Your New Programs

If you develop a new program, and you want it to be of the greatest possible use to humanity, the best way to achieve this is to make it free software which everyone can redistribute and change under these terms.

To do so, attach the following notices to the program. It is safest to attach them to the start of each source file to most effectively convey the exclusion of warranty; and each file should have at least the “copyright” line and a pointer to where the full notice is found.

one line to give the program's name and a brief idea of what it does.
Copyright (C) 19yy  name of author

This program is free software; you can redistribute it and/or modify
it under the terms of the GNU General Public License as published by
the Free Software Foundation; either version 1, or (at your option)
any later version.

This program is distributed in the hope that it will be useful,
but WITHOUT ANY WARRANTY; without even the implied warranty of
MERCHANTABILITY or FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE.  See the
GNU General Public License for more details.

You should have received a copy of the GNU General Public License
along with this program; if not, write to the Free Software
Foundation, Inc., 675 Mass Ave, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA.

Also add information on how to contact you by electronic and paper mail.

If the program is interactive, make it output a short notice like this when it starts in an interactive mode:

Gnomovision version 69, Copyright (C) 19yy name of author
Gnomovision comes with ABSOLUTELY NO WARRANTY; for details type `show w'.
This is free software, and you are welcome to redistribute it
under certain conditions; type `show c' for details.

The hypothetical commands ‘show w’ and ‘show c’ should show the appropriate parts of the General Public License. Of course, the commands you use may be called something other than ‘show w’ and ‘show c’; they could even be mouse-clicks or menu items—whatever suits your program.

You should also get your employer (if you work as a programmer) or your school, if any, to sign a “copyright disclaimer” for the program, if necessary. Here a sample; alter the names:

Yoyodyne, Inc., hereby disclaims all copyright interest in the
program `Gnomovision' (a program to direct compilers to make passes
at assemblers) written by James Hacker.

signature of Ty Coon, 1 April 1989
Ty Coon, President of Vice

That’s all there is to it!

2 Problems and Bugs

If you have problems with GNU make or think you’ve found a bug, please report it to Roland McGrath; he doesn’t promise to do anything but he might well want to fix it.

Before reporting a bug, make sure you’ve actually found a real bug. Carefully reread the documentation and see if it really says you can do what you’re trying to do. If it’s not clear whether you should be able to do something or not, report that too; it’s a bug in the documentation!

Before reporting a bug or trying to fix it yourself, try to isolate it to the smallest possible makefile that reproduces the problem. Then send us the makefile and the exact results make gave you. Also say what you expected to occur; this will help us decide whether the problem was really in the documentation.

Once you’ve got a precise problem, send email to (Internet) ‘bug-gnu-utils@prep.ai.mit.edu’ or (UUCP) ‘mit-eddie!prep.ai.mit.edu!bug-gnu-utils’. Please include the version number of make you are using. You can get this information with the command ‘make -v -f /dev/null’.

Non-bug suggestions are always welcome as well. If you have questions about things that are unclear in the documentation or are just obscure features, ask Roland McGrath; he’ll be happy to help you out (but no promises). You can send him electronic mail at Internet address ‘roland@prep.ai.mit.edu’ or UUCP path ‘mit-eddie!prep.ai.mit.edu!roland’.

3 Simple Example of make

Suppose we have a text editor consisting of eight C source files and three header files. We need a makefile to tell make how to compile and link the editor. Assume that all the C files include ‘defs.h’, but only those defining editing commands include ‘commands.h’ and only low level files that change the editor buffer include ‘buffer.h’.

To recompile the editor, each changed C source file must be recompiled. If a header file has changed, to be safe each C source file that includes the header file must be recompiled. Each compilation produces an object file corresponding to the source file. Finally, if any source file has been recompiled, all the object files, whether newly made or saved from previous compilations, must be linked together to produce the new executable editor.

Here is a straightforward makefile that describes these criteria and says how to compile and link when the time comes:

edit : main.o kbd.o commands.o display.o \
       insert.o search.o files.o utils.o
        cc -o edit main.o kbd.o commands.o display.o \
                   insert.o search.o files.o utils.o

main.o : main.c defs.h
        cc -c main.c
kbd.o : kbd.c defs.h command.h
        cc -c kbd.c
commands.o : command.c defs.h command.h
        cc -c commands.c
display.o : display.c defs.h buffer.h
        cc -c display.c
insert.o : insert.c defs.h buffer.h
        cc -c insert.c
search.o : search.c defs.h buffer.h
        cc -c search.c
files.o : files.c defs.h buffer.h command.h
        cc -c files.c
utils.o : utils.c defs.h
        cc -c utils.c

We split each long line into two lines using a backslash-newline; this is like using one long line, but is easier to read.

Each file that is generated by a program—that is to say, each file except for source files—is the target of a rule (see section Writing Rules). (In this example, these are the object files such as ‘main.o’, ‘kbd.o’, etc., and the executable file ‘edit’.) The target appears at the beginning of a line, followed by a colon.

After the colon come the target’s dependencies: all the files that are used as input when the target file is updated. A target file needs to be recompiled or relinked if any of its dependencies changes. In addition, any dependencies that are themselves automatically generated should be updated first. In this example, ‘edit’ depends on each of the eight object files; the object file ‘main.o’ depends on the source file ‘main.c’ and on the header file ‘defs.h’.

By default, make starts with the first rule (not counting rules whose target names start with ‘.’). This is called the default goal. Therefore, we put the rule for the executable program ‘edit’ first. The other rules are processed because their targets appear as dependencies of the goal.

After each line containing a target and dependencies come one or more lines of shell commands that say how to update the target file. These lines start with a tab to tell make that they are command lines. But make does not know anything about how the commands work. It is up to you to supply commands that will update the target file properly. All make does is execute the commands you have specified when the target file needs to be updated.

3.1 How make Processes This Makefile

After reading the makefile, make begins its real work by processing the first rule, the one for relinking ‘edit’; but before it can fully process this rule, it must process the rules for the files ‘edit’ depends on: all the object files. Each of these files is processed according to its own rule. These rules say to update the ‘.o’ file by compiling its source file. The recompilation must be done if the source file, or any of the header files named as dependencies, is more recent than the object file, or if the object file does not exist.

Before recompiling an object file, make considers updating its dependencies, the source file and header files. This makefile does not specify anything to be done for them—the ‘.c’ and ‘.h’ files are not the targets of any rules—so nothing needs to be done. But automatically generated C programs, such as made by Bison or Yacc, would be updated by their own rules at this time.

After recompiling whichever object files need it, make can now decide whether to relink ‘edit’. This must be done if the file ‘edit’ does not exist, or if any of the object files are newer than it. If an object file was just recompiled, it is now newer than ‘edit’, so ‘edit’ will be relinked.

Thus, if we change the file ‘insert.c’ and run make, make will compile that file to update ‘insert.o’, and then link ‘edit’. If we change the file ‘command.h’ and run make, make will recompile the object files ‘kbd.o’, ‘commands.o’ and ‘files.o’ and then link file ‘edit’.

3.2 Variables Make Makefiles Simpler

In our example, we had to list all the object files twice in the rule for ‘edit’ (repeated here):

edit : main.o kbd.o commands.o display.o \
              insert.o search.o files.o utils.o
        cc -o edit main.o kbd.o commands.o display.o \
                   insert.o search.o files.o utils.o

Such duplication is error-prone; if a new object file is added to the system, we might add it to one list and forget the other. We can eliminate the risk and simplify the makefile by using a variable. Variables allow a text string to be defined once and substituted in multiple places later (see section How to Use Variables).

It is standard practice for every makefile to have a variable named objects, OBJECTS, objs, OBJS, obj or OBJ which is a list of all object file names. We would define such a variable objects with a line like this in the makefile:

objects = main.o kbd.o commands.o display.o \
              insert.o search.o files.o utils.o

Then, each place we want to put a list of the object file names, we can substitute the variable’s value by writing ‘$(objects)’ (see section How to Use Variables). Here is how the rule for edit looks as a result:

edit : $(objects)
        cc -o edit $(objects)

3.3 Letting make Deduce the Commands

It is not necessary to spell out the commands for compiling the individual C source files, because make can figure them out: it has an implicit rule for updating a ‘.o’ file from a correspondingly named ‘.c’ file using a ‘cc -c’ command. For example, it will use the command ‘cc -c main.c -o main.o’ to compile ‘main.c’ into ‘main.o’. We can therefore omit the commands from the rules for the object files. See section Using Implicit Rules.

When a ‘.c’ file is used automatically in this way, it is also automatically added to the list of dependencies. We can therefore omit the ‘.c’ files from the dependencies, provided we omit the commands.

Here is the entire example, with both of these changes, and a variable objects as suggested above:

objects =  main.o kbd.o commands.o display.o \
 insert.o search.o files.o utils.o

edit : $(objects)
        cc -o edit $(objects)

main.o : defs.h
kbd.o : defs.h command.h
commands.o : defs.h command.h
display.o : defs.h buffer.h
insert.o : defs.h buffer.h
search.o : defs.h buffer.h
files.o : defs.h buffer.h command.h
utils.o : defs.h

This is how we would write the makefile in actual practice.

3.4 Another Style of Makefile

Since the rules for the object files specify only dependencies, no commands, one can alternatively combine them by dependency instead of by target. Here is what it looks like:

objects =  main.o kbd.o commands.o display.o \
 insert.o search.o files.o utils.o

edit : $(objects)
        cc -o edit $(objects)

$(objects) : defs.h
kbd.o commands.o files.o : command.h
display.o insert.o search.o files.o : buffer.h

Here ‘defs.h’ is given as a dependency of all the object files; ‘commands.h’ and ‘buffer.h’ are dependencies of the specific object files listed for them.

Whether this is better is a matter of taste: it is more compact, but some people dislike it because they find it clearer to put all the information about each target in one place.

3.5 Rules for Cleaning the Directory

Compiling a program isn’t the only thing you might want to write rules for. Makefiles commonly tell how to do a few other things besides compiling the program: for example, how to delete all the object files and executables so that the directory is “clean”. Here is how we would write a make rule for cleaning our example editor:

clean:
        rm edit $(objects)

This rule would be added at the end of the makefile, because we don’t want it to run by default! We want the rule for edit, which recompiles the editor, to remain the default goal.

Since clean is not a dependency of edit, this rule won’t run at all if we give the command ‘make’ with no arguments. In order to make the rule run, we have to type ‘make clean’.

4 Writing Makefiles

The information that tells make how to recompile a system comes from reading a data base called the makefile.

4.1 What Makefiles Contain

Makefiles contain four kinds of things: rules, variable definitions, directives and comments. Rules, variables and directives are described at length in later chapters.

• A rule says when and how to remake one or more files, called the rule’s targets. It lists the other files that the targets depend on, and may also give commands to use to create or update the targets. See section Writing Rules.
• A variable definition is a line that specifies a text string value for a variable that can be substituted into the text later. The simple makefile example (see section Simple Example of make) shows a variable definition for objects as a list of all object files. See section How to Use Variables, for full details.
• A directive is a command for make to do something special while reading the makefile. These include:
  • Reading another makefile (see section Including Other Makefiles).
  • Deciding (based on the values of variables) whether to use or ignore a part of the makefile (see section Conditional Parts of Makefiles).
  • Defining a variable from a verbatim string containing multiple lines (see section Defining Variables Verbatim).
• ‘#’ in a line of a makefile starts a comment. It and the rest of the line are ignored, except that a trailing backslash not escaped by another backslash will continue the comment across multiple lines. Comments may appear on any of the lines in the makefile, except within a define directive, and perhaps within commands (where the shell decides what is a comment). A line containing just a comment (with perhaps spaces before it) is effectively blank, and is ignored.

4.2 What Name to Give Your Makefile

By default, when make looks for the makefile, it tries the names ‘GNUmakefile’, ‘makefile’ and ‘Makefile’, in that order.

Normally you should call your makefile either ‘makefile’ or ‘Makefile’. (We recommend ‘Makefile’ because it appears prominently near the beginning of a directory listing, right near other important files such as ‘README’.) The first name checked, ‘GNUmakefile’, is not recommended for most makefiles. You should use this name if you have a makefile that is specific to GNU make, and will not be understood by other versions of make.

If make finds none of these names, it does not use any makefile. Then you must specify a goal with a command argument, and make will attempt to figure out how to remake it using only its built-in implicit rules. See section Using Implicit Rules.

If you want to use a nonstandard name for your makefile, you can specify the makefile name with the ‘-f’ option. The arguments ‘-f name’ tell make to read the file name as the makefile. If you use more than one ‘-f’ option, you can specify several makefiles. All the makefiles are effectively concatenated in the order specified. The default makefile names ‘GNUmakefile’, ‘makefile’ and ‘Makefile’ are not checked automatically if you specify ‘-f’.

4.3 Including Other Makefiles

The include directive tells make to suspend reading the current makefile and read another makefile before continuing. The directive is a line in the makefile that looks like this:

include filename

Extra spaces are allowed and ignored at the beginning of the line, but a tab is not allowed. (If the line begins with a tab, it will be considered a command line.) Whitespace is required between include and filename; extra whitespace is ignored there and at the end of the directive. A comment starting with ‘#’ is allowed at the end of the line. If filename contains any variable or function references, they are expanded. (See section How to Use Variables.)

When make processes an include directive, it suspends reading of the containing makefile and reads from filename instead. When that is finished, make resumes reading the makefile in which the directive appears.

One occasion for using include directives is when several programs, handled by individual makefiles in various directories, need to use a common set of variable definitions (see section Setting Variables) or pattern rules (see section Defining and Redefining Pattern Rules).

Another such occasion is when you want to automatically generate dependencies from source files; the dependencies can be put in a file that is included by the main makefile. This practice is generally cleaner than that of somehow appending the dependencies to the end of the main makefile as has been traditionally done with other versions of make.

If the specified name does not start with a slash, and the file is not found in the current directory, several other directories are searched. First, any directories you have specified with the ‘-I’ option are searched (see section Summary of Options). Then the following directories (if they exist) are searched, in this order: ‘/usr/gnu/include’, ‘/usr/local/include’, ‘/usr/include’. If an included makefile cannot be found in any of these directories, a warning message is generated, but it is not a fatal error; processing of the makefile containing the include continues.

4.4 The Variable MAKEFILES

If the environment variable MAKEFILES is defined, make considers its value as a list of names (separated by whitespace) of additional makefiles to be read before the others. This works much like the include directive: various directories are searched for those files (see section Including Other Makefiles). In addition, the default goal is never taken from one of these makefiles and it is not an error if the files listed in MAKEFILES are not found.

The main use of MAKEFILES is in communication between recursive invocations of make (see section Recursive Use of make). It usually isn’t desirable to set the environment variable before a top-level invocation of make, because it is usually better not to mess with a makefile from outside. However, if you are running make without a specific makefile, a makefile in MAKEFILES can do useful things to help the built-in implicit rules work better, such as defining search paths.

Some users are tempted to set MAKEFILES in the environment automatically on login, and program makefiles to expect this to be done. This is a very bad idea, because such makefiles will fail to work if run by anyone else. It is much better to write explicit include directives in the makefiles.

4.5 How Makefiles Are Remade

Sometimes makefiles can be remade from other files, such as RCS or SCCS files. If a makefile can be remade from other files, you probably want make to get an up-to-date version of the makefile to read in.

To this end, after reading in all makefiles, make will consider each as a goal target and attempt to update it. If a makefile has a rule which says how to update it (found either in that very makefile or in another one) or if an implicit rule applies to it (see section Using Implicit Rules), it will be updated if necessary. After all makefiles have been checked, if any have actually been changed, make starts with a clean slate and reads all the makefiles over again. (It will also attempt to update each of them over again, but normally this will not change them again, since they are already up to date.)

If the makefiles specify commands to remake a file but no dependencies, the file will always be remade. In the case of makefiles, a makefile that has commands but no dependencies will be remade every time make is run, and then again after make starts over and reads the makefiles in again. This would cause an infinite loop; make would constantly remake the makefile, and never do anything else. So, to avoid this, make will not attempt to remake makefiles which are specified as targets but have no dependencies.

If you do not specify any makefiles to be read with ‘-f’ options, make will try the default makefile names; see section What Name to Give Your Makefile. Unlike makefiles explicitly requested with ‘-f’ options, make is not certain that these makefiles should exist. However, if a default makefile does not exist but can be created by running make rules, you probably want the rules to be run so that the makefile can be used.

Therefore, if none of the default makefiles exists, make will try to make each of them in the same order in which they are searched for (see section What Name to Give Your Makefile) until it succeeds in making one, or it runs out of names to try. Note that it is not an error if make cannot find or make any makefile; a makefile is not always necessary.

When you use the ‘-t’ option (touch targets), you would not want to use an out-of-date makefile to decide which targets to touch. So the ‘-t’ option has no effect on updating makefiles; they are really updated even if ‘-t’ is specified. Likewise, ‘-q’ and ‘-n’ do not prevent updating of makefiles, because an out-of-date makefile would result in the wrong output for other targets. Thus, ‘make -f mfile -n foo’ will update ‘mfile’, read it in, and then print the commands to update ‘foo’ and its dependencies without running them. The commands printed for ‘foo’ will be those specified in the updated contents of ‘mfile’.

However, on occasion you might actually wish to prevent updating of even the makefiles. You can do this by specifying the makefiles as goals in the command line as well as specifying them as makefiles. When the makefile name is specified explicitly as a goal, the options ‘-t’ and so on do apply to them.

Thus, ‘make -f mfile -n mfile foo’ would read the makefile ‘mfile’, print the commands needed to update it without actually running them, and then print the commands needed to update ‘foo’ without running them. The commands for ‘foo’ will be those specified by the existing contents of ‘mfile’.

4.6 Overriding Part of One Makefile with Another Makefile

Sometimes it is useful to have a makefile that is mostly just like another makefile. You can often use the ‘include’ directive to include one in the other, and add more targets or variable definitions. However, if the two makefiles give different commands for the same target, make will not let you just do this. But there is another way.

In the containing makefile (the one that wants to include the other), you can use the .DEFAULT special target to say that to remake any target that cannot be made from the information in the containing makefile, make should look in another makefile. See section Defining Last-Resort Default Rules, for more information on .DEFAULT.

For example, if you have a makefile called ‘Makefile’ that says how to make the target ‘foo’ (and other targets), you can write a makefile called ‘GNUmakefile’ that contains:

foo:
        frobnicate > foo

.DEFAULT:
        @$(MAKE) -f Makefile $@

If you say ‘make foo’, make will find ‘GNUmakefile’, read it, and see that to make ‘foo’, it needs to run the command ‘frobnicate > foo’. If you say ‘make bar’, make will find no way to make ‘bar’ in ‘GNUmakefile’, so it will use the commands from .DEFAULT: ‘make -f Makefile bar’. If ‘Makefile’ provides a rule for updating ‘bar’, make will apply the rule. And likewise for any other target that ‘GNUmakefile’ does not say how to make.

5 Writing Rules

A rule appears in the makefile and says when and how to remake certain files, called the rule’s targets (usually only one per rule). It lists the other files that are the dependencies of the target, and commands to use to create or update the target.

The order of rules is not significant, except for determining the default goal: the target for make to consider, if you do not otherwise specify one. The default goal is the target of the first rule in the first makefile, except that targets starting with a period do not count unless they contain slashes as well; also, a target that defines a pattern rule (see section Defining and Redefining Pattern Rules) or a suffix rule (see section Old-Fashioned Suffix Rules) has no effect on the default goal.

Therefore, we usually write the makefile so that the first rule is the one for compiling the entire program or all the programs described by the makefile. See section Arguments to Specify the Goals.

5.1 Rule Syntax

In general, a rule looks like this:

targets : dependencies
        command
        command
        ...

or like this:

targets : dependencies ; command
        command
        command
        ...

The targets are file names, separated by spaces. Wild card characters may be used (see section Using Wildcards Characters in File Names) and a name of the form ‘a(m)’ represents member m in archive file a (see section Archive Members as Targets). Usually there is only one target per rule, but occasionally there is a reason to have more; See section Multiple Targets in a Rule.

The command lines start with a tab character. The first command may appear on the line after the dependencies, with a tab character, or may appear on the same line, with a semicolon. Either way, the effect is the same. See section Writing the Commands in Rules.

Because dollar signs are used to start variable references, if you really want a dollar sign in the rule you must write two of them (‘$$’). See section How to Use Variables. You may split a long line by inserting a backslash followed by a newline, but this is not required, as make places no limit on the length of a line in a makefile.

A rule tells make two things: when the targets are out of date, and how to update them when necessary.

The criterion for being out of date is specified in terms of the dependencies, which consist of file names separated by spaces. (Wildcards and archive members are allowed here too.) A target is out of date if it does not exist or if it is older than any of the dependencies (by comparison of last-modification times). The idea is that the contents of the target file are computed based on information in the dependencies, so if any of the dependencies changes, the contents of the existing target file are no longer necessarily valid.

How to update is specified by commands. These are lines to be executed by the shell (normally ‘sh’), but with some extra features (see section Writing the Commands in Rules).

5.2 Using Wildcards Characters in File Names

A single file name can specify many files using wildcard characters. The wildcard characters in make are ‘*’, ‘?’ and ‘[…]’, the same as in the Bourne shell. For example, ‘*.c’ specifies a list of all the files (in the working directory) whose names end in ‘.c’.

The character ‘~’ at the beginning of a file name also has special significance. If alone, or followed by a slash, it represents your home directory. For example ‘~/bin’ expands to ‘/home/you/bin’. If the ‘~’ is followed by a word, the string represents the home directory of the user named by that word. For example ‘~me/bin’ expands to ‘/home/me/bin’.

Wildcard expansion happens automatically in targets, in dependencies, and in commands. In other contexts, wildcard expansion happens only if you request it explicitly with the wildcard function.

The special significance of a wildcard character can be turned off by preceding it with a backslash. Thus, ‘foo\*bar’ would refer to a specific file whose name consists of ‘foo’, an asterisk, and ‘bar’.

5.2.1 Wildcard Examples

Wildcards can be used in the commands of a rule. For example, here is a rule to delete all the object files:

clean:
        rm -f *.o

Wildcards are also useful in the dependencies of a rule. With the following rule in the makefile, ‘make print’ will print all the ‘.c’ files that have changed since the last time you printed them:

print: *.c
        lpr -p $?
        touch print

This rule uses ‘print’ as an empty target file; see section Empty Target Files to Record Events.

Wildcard expansion does not happen when you define a variable. Thus, if you write this:

objects=*.o

then the value of the variable objects is the actual string ‘*.o’. However, if you use the value of objects in a target, dependency or command, wildcard expansion will take place at that time.

5.2.2 Pitfalls of Using Wildcards

Now here is an example of a naive way of using wildcard expansion, that does not do what you would intend. Suppose you would like to say that the executable file ‘foo’ is made from all the object files in the directory, and you write this:

objects=*.o

foo : $(objects)
        cc -o foo $(CFLAGS) $(objects)

The value of objects is the actual string ‘*.o’. Wildcard expansion happens in the rule for ‘foo’, so that each existing ‘.o’ file becomes a dependency of ‘foo’ and will be recompiled if necessary.

But what if you delete all the ‘.o’ files? Then ‘*.o’ will expand into nothing. The target ‘foo’ will have no dependencies and would be remade by linking no object files. This is not what you want!

Actually it is possible to obtain the desired result with wildcard expansion, but you need more sophisticated techniques, including the wildcard function and string substitution.

5.2.3 The Function wildcard

Wildcard expansion happens automatically in rules. But wildcard expansion does not normally take place when a variable is set, or inside the arguments of a function. If you want to do wildcard expansion in such places, you need to use the wildcard function, like this:

$(wildcard pattern)

This string, used anywhere in a makefile, is replaced by a space-separated list of names of existing files that match the pattern pattern.

One use of the wildcard function is to get a list of all the C source files in a directory, like this:

$(wildcard *.c)

We can change the list of C source files into a list of object files by substituting ‘.o’ for ‘.c’ in the result, like this:

$(subst .c,.o,$(wildcard *.c))

(Here we have used another function, subst. See section Functions for String Substitution and Analysis.)

Thus, a makefile to compile all C source files in the directory and then link them together could be written as follows:

objects:=$(subst .c,.o,$(wildcard *.c))

foo : $(objects)
        cc -o foo $(LDFLAGS) $(objects)

(This takes advantage of the implicit rule for compiling C programs, so there is no need to write explicit rules for compiling the files. See section The Two Flavors of Variables, for an explanation of ‘:=’, which is a variant of ‘=’.)

5.3 Searching Directories for Dependencies

For large systems, it is often desirable to put sources in a separate directory from the binaries. The directory search features of make facilitate this by searching several directories automatically to find a dependency. When you redistribute the files among directories, you do not need to change the individual rules, just the search paths.

5.3.1 VPATH: Search Path for All Dependencies

The value of the make variable VPATH specifies a list of directories which make should search (in the order specified) for dependency files. The directory names are separated by colons. For example:

VPATH = src:../headers

specifies a path containing two directories, ‘src’ and ‘../headers’.

Whenever a file listed as a dependency does not exist in the current directory, the directories listed in VPATH are searched for a file with that name. If a file is found in one of them, that file becomes the dependency. Rules may then specify the names of source files as if they all existed in the current directory.

Using the value of VPATH set in the previous example, a rule like this:

foo.o : foo.c

is interpreted as if it were written like this:

foo.o : src/foo.c

assuming the file ‘foo.c’ does not exist in the current directory but is found in the directory ‘src’.

5.3.2 The vpath Directive

Similar to the VPATH variable but more selective is the vpath directive, which allows you to specify a search path for a particular class of filenames, those that match a particular pattern. Thus you can supply certain search directories for one class of filenames and other directories (or none) for other filenames.

There are three forms of the vpath directive:

vpath pattern directories

Specify the search path directories for filenames that match pattern. If another path was previously specified for the same pattern, the new path replaces it. Note that it does not add to the old path for this pattern.

The search path, directories, is a colon-separated list of directories to be searched, just like the search path used in the VPATH variable.

vpath pattern

Clear out the search path associated with pattern.

vpath

Clear all search paths previously specified with vpath directives.

A vpath pattern is a string containing a ‘%’ character. The string must match the filename of a dependency that is being searched for, the ‘%’ character matching any sequence of zero or more characters (as in pattern rules; see section Defining and Redefining Pattern Rules). (If there is no ‘%’, the pattern must match the dependency, which is not useful very often.)

‘%’ characters in a vpath directive’s pattern can be quoted with preceding backslashes (‘\’). Backslashes that would otherwise quote ‘%’ characters can be quoted with more backslashes. Backslashes that quote ‘%’ characters or other backslashes are removed from the pattern before it is compared to file names. Backslashes that are not in danger of quoting ‘%’ characters go unmolested.

When a dependency fails to exist in the current directory, if the pattern in a vpath directive matches the name of the dependency file, then the directories in that directive are searched just like (and before) the directories in the VPATH variable. For example,

vpath %.h ../headers

tells make to look for any dependency whose name ends in ‘.h’ in the directory ‘../headers’ if the file is not found in the current directory.

If several vpath patterns match the dependency file’s name, then make processes each matching vpath directive one by one, searching all the directories mentioned in each directive. The vpath directives are processed in the order in which they appear in the makefiles.

5.3.3 Writing Shell Commands with Directory Search

When a dependency is found in another directory through directory search, this cannot change the commands of the rule; they will execute as written. Therefore, you must write the commands with care so that they will look for the dependency in the directory where make finds it.

This is done with the automatic variables such as ‘$^’ (see section Automatic Variables). For instance, the value of ‘$^’ is a list of all the dependencies of the rule, including the names of the directories in which they were found, and the value of ‘$@’ is the target. Thus:

foo.o : foo.c
        cc -c $(CFLAGS) $^ -o $@

The variable CFLAGS exists so you can specify flags for C compilation by implicit rule; we use it here for consistency so it will affect all C compilations uniformly (see section Variables Used by Implicit Rules).

Often the dependencies include header files as well, which you don’t want to mention in the commands. The function firstword can be used to extract just the first dependency from the entire list, as shown here (see section Functions for File Names):

VPATH = src:../headers
foo.o : foo.c defs.h hack.h
        cc -c $(CFLAGS) $(firstword $^) -o $@

Here the value of ‘$^’ would be something like ‘src/foo.c ../headers/defs.h hack.h’, from which ‘$(firstword $^)’ extracts just ‘src/foo.c’.

5.3.4 Directory Search and Implicit Rules

The search through the directories specified in VPATH or with vpath happens also during consideration of implicit rules (see section Using Implicit Rules).

For example, when a file ‘foo.o’ has no explicit rule, make considers implicit rules, such as to compile ‘foo.c’ if that file exists. If such a file is lacking in the current directory, the appropriate directories are searched for it. If ‘foo.c’ exists (or is mentioned in the makefile) in any of the directories, the implicit rule for C compilation is applicable.

The commands of all the built-in implicit rules normally use automatic variables as a matter of necessity; consequently they will use the file names found by directory search with no extra effort.

5.3.5 Directory Search for Link Libraries

Directory search applies in a special way to libraries used with the linker. This special feature comes into play when you write a dependency whose name is of the form ‘-lname’. (You can tell something funny is going on here because the dependency is normally the name of a file, and the file name of the library looks like ‘libname.a’, not like ‘-lname’.)

When a dependency’s name has the form ‘-lname’, make handles it specially by searching for the file ‘libname.a’ in the directories ‘/lib’ and ‘/usr/lib’, and then using matching vpath search paths and the VPATH search path.

For example,

foo : foo.c -lcurses
        cc $^ -o $@

would cause the command ‘cc foo.c -lcurses -o foo’ to be executed when ‘foo’ is older than ‘foo.c’ or than ‘libcurses.a’ (which has probably been found by directory search in the file ‘/usr/lib/libcurses.a’).

As shown by the example above, the file name found by directory search is used only for comparing the file time with the target file’s time. It does not replace the file’s name in later usage (such as in automatic variables like $^); the name remains unchanged, still starting with ‘-l’. This leads to the correct results because the linker will repeat the appropriate search when it processes this argument.

5.4 Phony Targets

A phony target is one that is not really the name of a file. It is just a name for some commands to be executed when you make an explicit request.

If you write a rule whose commands will not create the target file, the commands will be executed every time the target comes up for remaking. Here is an example:

clean:
        rm *.o temp

Because the rm command does not create a file named ‘clean’, probably no such file will ever exist. Therefore, the rm command will be executed every time you say ‘make clean’.

The phony target will cease to work if anything ever does create a file named ‘clean’ in this directory. Since it has no dependencies, the file ‘clean’ would inevitably be considered up to date, and its commands would not be executed. To avoid this problem, you can explicitly declare the target to be phony, using the special target .PHONY (see section Special Built-in Target Names) as follows:

.PHONY : clean

Once this is done, ‘make clean’ will run the commands regardless of whether there is a file named ‘clean’.

A phony target should not be a dependency of a real target file; strange things can result from that. As long as you don’t do that, the phony target commands will be executed only when the phony target is a specified goal (see section Arguments to Specify the Goals).

Phony targets can have dependencies. When one directory contains multiple programs, it is most convenient to describe all of the programs in one makefile ‘./Makefile’. Since the target remade by default will be the first one in the makefile, it is common to make this a phony target named ‘all’ and give it, as dependencies, all the individual programs. For example:

all : prog1 prog2 prog3
.PHONY : all

prog1 : prog1.o utils.o
        cc -o prog1 prog1.o utils.o

prog2 : prog2.o
        cc -o prog2 prog2.o

prog3 : prog3.o sort.o utils.o
        cc -o prog3 prog3.o sort.o utils.o

Now you can say just ‘make’ to remake all three programs, or specify as arguments the ones to remake (as in ‘make prog1 prog3’).

When one phony target is a dependency of another, it serves as a subroutine of the other. For example, here ‘make cleanall’ will delete the object files, the difference files, and the file ‘program’:

cleanall : cleanobj cleandiff
        rm program

cleanobj :
        rm *.o

cleandiff :
        rm *.diff

5.5 Rules without Commands or Dependencies

If a rule has no dependencies or commands, and the target of the rule is a nonexistent file, then make imagines this target to have been updated whenever its rule is run. This implies that all targets depending on this one will always have their commands run.

An example will illustrate this:

clean: FORCE
        rm $(objects)
FORCE:

Here the target ‘FORCE’ satisfies the special conditions, so the target ‘clean’ that depends on it is forced to run its commands. There is nothing special about the name ‘FORCE’, but that is one name commonly used this way.

As you can see, using ‘FORCE’ this way has the same results as using ‘.PHONY: clean’. The latter is more explicit, but other versions of make do not support it; thus ‘FORCE’ appears in many makefiles.

5.6 Empty Target Files to Record Events

The empty target is a variant of the phony target; it is used to hold commands for an action that you request explicitly from time to time. Unlike a phony target, this target file can really exist; but the file’s contents do not matter, and usually are empty.

The purpose of the empty target file is to record, with its last-modification time, when the rule’s commands were last executed. It does so because one of the commands is a touch command to update the target file.

The empty target file must have some dependencies. When you ask to remake the empty target, the commands are executed if any dependency is more recent than the target; in other words, if a dependency has changed since the last time you remade the target. Here is an example:

print: foo.c bar.c
        lpr -p $?
        touch print

With this rule, ‘make print’ will execute the lpr command if either source file has changed since the last ‘make print’. The automatic variable ‘$?’ is used to print only those files that have changed (see section Automatic Variables).

5.7 Special Built-in Target Names

Certain names have special meanings if they appear as targets.

.PHONY

The dependencies of the special target .PHONY are considered to be phony targets. When it is time to consider such a target, make will run its commands unconditionally, regardless of whether a file with that name exists or what its last-modification time is. See section Phony Targets.

.SUFFIXES

The dependencies of the special target .SUFFIXES are the list of suffixes to be used in checking for suffix rules. See section Old-Fashioned Suffix Rules.

.DEFAULT

The commands specified for .DEFAULT are used for any target for which no other commands are known (either explicitly or through an implicit rule). If .DEFAULT commands are specified, every nonexistent file mentioned as a dependency will have these commands executed on its behalf. See section Implicit Rule Search Algorithm.

.PRECIOUS

The targets which .PRECIOUS depends on are given this special treatment: if make is killed or interrupted during the execution of their commands, the target is not deleted. See section Interrupting or Killing make.

.IGNORE

Simply by being mentioned as a target, .IGNORE says to ignore errors in execution of commands. The dependencies and commands for .IGNORE are not meaningful.

‘.IGNORE’ exists for historical compatibility. Since .IGNORE affects every command in the makefile, it is not very useful; we recommend you use the more selective ways to ignore errors in specific commands. See section Errors in Commands.

.SILENT

Simply by being mentioned as a target, .SILENT says not to print commands before executing them. The dependencies and commands for .SILENT are not meaningful.

‘.SILENT’ exists for historical compatibility. We recommend you use the more selective ways to silence specific commands. See section Command Echoing.

Any defined implicit rule suffix also counts as a special target if it appears as a target, and so does the concatenation of two suffixes, such as ‘.c.o’. These targets are suffix rules, an obsolete way of defining implicit rules (but a way still widely used). In principle, any target name could be special in this way if you break it in two and add both pieces to the suffix list. In practice, suffixes normally begin with ‘.’, so these special target names also begin with ‘.’. See section Old-Fashioned Suffix Rules.

5.8 Multiple Targets in a Rule

A rule with multiple targets is equivalent to writing many rules, each with one target, and all identical aside from that. The same commands apply to all the targets, but their effects may vary because you can substitute the actual target name into the command using ‘$@’. The rule contributes the same dependencies to all the targets also.

This is useful in two cases.

• You want just dependencies, no commands. For example:

  kbd.o commands.o files.o: command.h
  

  gives an additional dependency to each of the three object files mentioned.

• Similar commands work for all the targets. The commands do not need to be absolutely identical, since the automatic variable ‘$@’ can be used to substitute the particular target to be remade into the commands (see section Automatic Variables). For example:

  bigoutput littleoutput : text.g
          generate text.g -$(subst output,,$@) > $@
  

  is equivalent to

  bigoutput : text.g
          generate text.g -big > bigoutput
  littleoutput : text.g
          generate text.g -little > littleoutput
  

  Here we assume the hypothetical program generate makes two types of output, one if given ‘-big’ and one if given ‘-little’.

5.9 Static Pattern Rules

Static pattern rules are rules which specify multiple targets and construct the dependency names for each target based on the target name. They are more general than ordinary rules with multiple targets because the targets don’t have to have identical dependencies. Their dependencies must be analogous, but not necessarily identical.

5.9.1 Syntax of Static Pattern Rules

Here is the syntax of a static pattern rule:

targets: target-pattern: dep-patterns …
        commands
        …

The targets gives the list of targets that the rule applies to. The targets can contain wildcard characters, just like the targets of ordinary rules (see section Using Wildcards Characters in File Names).

The target-pattern and dep-patterns say how to compute the dependencies of each target. Each target is matched against the target-pattern to extract a part of the target name, called the stem. This stem is substituted into each of the dep-patterns to make the dependency names (one from each dep-pattern).

Each pattern normally contains the character ‘%’ just once. When the target-pattern matches a target, the ‘%’ can match any part of the target name; this part is called the stem. The rest of the pattern must match exactly. For example, the target ‘foo.o’ matches the pattern ‘%.o’, with ‘foo’ as the stem. The targets ‘foo.c’ and ‘foo.out’ don’t match that pattern.

The dependency names for each target are made by substituting the stem for the ‘%’ in each dependency pattern. For example, if one dependency pattern is ‘%.c’, then substitution of the stem ‘foo’ gives the dependency name ‘foo.c’. It is legitimate to write a dependency pattern that doesn’t contain ‘%’; then this dependency is the same for all targets.

‘%’ characters in pattern rules can be quoted with preceding backslashes (‘\’). Backslashes that would otherwise quote ‘%’ characters can be quoted with more backslashes. Backslashes that quote ‘%’ characters or other backslashes are removed from the pattern before it is compared file names or has a stem substituted into it. Backslashes that are not in danger of quoting ‘%’ characters go unmolested. For example, the pattern ‘the\%weird\\%pattern\\’ has ‘the%weird\’ preceding the operative ‘%’ character, and ‘pattern\\’ following it. The final two backslashes are left alone because they can’t affect any ‘%’ character.

Here is an example, which compiles each of ‘foo.o’ and ‘bar.o’ from the corresponding ‘.c’ file:

objects = foo.o bar.o

$(objects): %.o: %.c
        $(CC) -c $(CFLAGS) $< -o $@

Each target specified must match the target pattern; a warning is issued for each target that does not. If you have a list of files, only some of which will match the pattern, you can use the filter function to remove nonmatching filenames (see section Functions for String Substitution and Analysis):

files = foo.elc bar.o lose.o

$(filter %.o,$(files)): %.o: %.c
        $(CC) -c $(CFLAGS) $< -o $@
$(filter %.elc,$(files)): %.elc: %.el
        emacs -f batch-byte-compile $<

Here the result of ‘$(filter %.o,$(files))’ is ‘bar.o lose.o’, and the first static pattern rule causes each of these object files to be updated by compiling the corresponding C source file. The result of ‘$(filter %.elc,$(files))’ is ‘foo.elc’, so that file is made from ‘foo.el’.

5.9.2 Static Pattern Rules versus Implicit Rules

A static pattern rule has much in common with an implicit rule defined as a pattern rule (see section Defining and Redefining Pattern Rules). Both have a pattern for the target and patterns for constructing the names of dependencies. The difference is in how make decides when the rule applies.

An implicit rule can apply to any target that matches its pattern, but it does apply only when the target has no commands otherwise specified, and only when the dependencies can be found. If more than one implicit rule appears applicable, only one applies; the choice depends on the order of rules.

By contrast, a static pattern rule applies to the precise list of targets that you specify in the rule. It cannot apply to any other target and it invariably does apply to each of the targets specified. If two conflicting rules apply, and both have commands, that’s an error.

The static pattern rule can be better than an implicit rule for these reasons:

• You may wish to override the usual implicit rule for a few files whose names cannot be categorized syntactically but can be given in an explicit list.
• If you cannot be sure of the precise contents of the directories you are using, you may not be sure which other irrelevant files might lead make to use the wrong implicit rule. The choice might depend on the order in which the implicit rule search is done. With static pattern rules, there is no uncertainty: each rule applies to precisely the targets specified.

5.10 Multiple Rules for One Target

One file can be the target of several rules if at most one rule has commands; the other rules can only have dependencies. All the dependencies mentioned in all the rules are merged into one list of dependencies for the target. If the target is older than any dependency from any rule, the commands are executed.

An extra rule with just dependencies can be used to give a few extra dependencies to many files at once. For example, one usually has a variable named objects containing a list of all the compiler output files in the system being made. An easy way to say that all of them must be recompiled if ‘config.h’ changes is to write

objects = foo.o bar.o
foo.o : defs.h
bar.o : defs.h test.h
$(objects) : config.h

This could be inserted or taken out without changing the rules that really say how to make the object files, making it a convenient form to use if you wish to add the additional dependency intermittently.

Another wrinkle is that the additional dependencies could be specified with a variable that you could set with a command argument to make (see section Overriding Variables). For example,

extradeps=
$(objects) : $(extradeps)

means that the command ‘make extradeps=foo.h’ will consider ‘foo.h’ as a dependency of each object file, but plain ‘make’ will not.

If none of the explicit rules for a target has commands, then make searches for an applicable implicit rule to find some commands. See section Using Implicit Rules.

5.11 Double-Colon Rules

Double-colon rules are rules written with ‘::’ instead of ‘:’ after the target names. They are handled differently from ordinary rules when the same target appears in more than one rule.

When a target appears in multiple rules, all the rules must be the same type: all ordinary, or all double-colon. If they are double-colon, each of them is independent of the others. Each double-colon rule’s commands are executed if the target is older than any dependencies of that rule. This can result in executing none, any or all of the double-colon rules.

Double-colon rules with the same target are in fact completely separate from one another. Each double-colon rule is processed individually, just as rules with different targets are processed.

The double-colon rules for a target are executed in the order they appear in the makefile. However, the cases where double-colon rules really make sense are those where the order of executing the commands would not matter.

Double-colon rules are somewhat obscure and not often very useful; they provide a mechanism for cases in which the method used to update a target differs depending on which dependency files caused the update, and such cases are rare.

Each double-colon rule should specify commands; if it does not, an implicit rule will be used if one applies. See section Using Implicit Rules.

6 Writing the Commands in Rules

The commands of a rule consist of shell command lines to be executed one by one. Each command line must start with a tab, except that the first command line may be attached to the target-and-dependencies line with a semicolon in between. Blank lines and lines of just comments may appear among the command lines; they are ignored.

Users use many different shell programs, but commands in makefiles are always interpreted by ‘/bin/sh’ unless the makefile specifies otherwise.

Whether comments can be written on command lines, and what syntax they use, is under the control of the shell that is in use. If it is ‘/bin/sh’, a ‘#’ at the start of a word starts a comment.

6.1 Command Echoing

Normally make prints each command line before it is executed. We call this echoing because it gives the appearance that you are typing the commands yourself.

When a line starts with ‘@’, the echoing of that line is suppressed. The ‘@’ is discarded before the command is passed to the shell. Typically you would use this for a command whose only effect is to print something, such as an echo command to indicate progress through the makefile:

@echo About to make distribution files

When make is given the flag ‘-n’, echoing is all that happens, no execution. See section Summary of Options. In this case and only this case, even the commands starting with ‘@’ are printed. This flag is useful for finding out which commands make thinks are necessary without actually doing them.

The ‘-s’ flag to make prevents all echoing, as if all commands started with ‘@’. A rule in the makefile for the special target .SILENT has the same effect (see section Special Built-in Target Names). .SILENT is essentially obsolete since ‘@’ is more flexible.

6.2 Command Execution

When it is time to execute commands to update a target, they are executed by making a new subshell for each line. (In practice, make may take shortcuts that do not affect the results.)

This implies that shell commands such as cd that set variables local to each process will not affect the following command lines. If you want to use cd to affect the next command, put the two on a single line with a semicolon between them. Then make will consider them a single command and pass them, together, to a shell which will execute them in sequence. For example:

foo : bar/lose
        cd bar; gobble lose > ../foo

If you would like to split a single shell command into multiple lines of text, you must use a backslash at the end of all but the last subline. Such a sequence of lines is combined into a single line, by deleting the backslash-newline sequences, before passing it to the shell. Thus, the following is equivalent to the preceding example:

foo : bar/lose
        cd bar;  \
        gobble lose > ../foo

The program used as the shell is taken from the variable SHELL. By default, the program ‘/bin/sh’ is used.

Unlike most variables, the variable SHELL will not be set from the environment, except in a recursive make. This is because the environment variable SHELL is used to specify your personal choice of shell program for interactive use. It would be very bad for personal choices like this to affect the functioning of makefiles. See section Variables from the Environment.

6.3 Parallel Execution

GNU make knows how to execute several commands at once. Normally, make will execute only one command at a time, waiting for it to finish before executing the next. However, the ‘-j’ option tells make to execute many commands simultaneously.

If the ‘-j’ option is followed by an integer, this is the number of commands to execute at once; this is called the number of job slots. If there is nothing looking like an integer after the ‘-j’ option, there is no limit on the number of job slots. The default number of job slots is one, which means serial execution (one thing at a time).

One unpleasant consequence of running several commands simultaneously is that output from all of the commands comes when the commands send it, so messages from different commands may be interspersed.

Another problem is that two processes cannot both take input from the same device; so to make sure that only one command tries to take input from the terminal at once, make will invalidate the standard input streams of all but one running command. This means that attempting to read from standard input, for most child processes if there are several, will usually be a fatal error (a ‘Broken pipe’ signal).

It is unpredictable which command will have a valid standard input stream (which will come from the terminal, or wherever you redirect the standard input of make). The first command run will always get it first, and the first command started after that one finishes will get it next, and so on.

We will change how this aspect of make works if we find a better alternative. In the mean time, you should not rely on any command using standard input at all if you are using the parallel execution feature; but if you are not using this feature, then standard input works normally in all commands.

If a command fails (is killed by a signal or exits with a nonzero status), and errors are not ignored for that command (see section Errors in Commands), the remaining command lines to remake the same target will not be run. If a command fails and the ‘-k’ option was not given (see section Summary of Options), make aborts execution. If make terminates for any reason (including a signal) with child processes running, it waits for them to finish before actually exiting.

When the system is heavily loaded, you will probably want to run fewer jobs than when it is lightly loaded. You can use the ‘-l’ option to tell make to limit the number of jobs to run at once, based on the load average. The ‘-l’ option is followed by a floating-point number. For example,

-l 2.5

will not let make start more than one job if the load average is above 2.5. The ‘-l’ option with no following number removes the load limit, if one was given with a previous ‘-l’ option.

More precisely, when make goes to start up a job, and it already has at least one job running, it checks the current load average; if it is not lower than the limit given with ‘-l’, make waits until the load average goes below that limit, or until all the other jobs finish.

By default, there is no load limit.

6.4 Errors in Commands

After each shell command returns, make looks at its exit status. If the command completed successfully, the next command line is executed in a new shell, or after the last command line is executed, the rule is finished.

If there is an error (the exit status is nonzero), make gives up on the current rule, and perhaps on all rules.

Sometimes the failure of a certain command does not indicate a problem. For example, you may use the mkdir command to insure that a directory exists. If the directory already exists, mkdir will report an error, but you probably want make to continue regardless.

To ignore errors in a command line, write a ‘-’ at the beginning of the line’s text (after the initial tab). The ‘-’ is discarded before the command is passed to the shell for execution. For example,

clean:
        -rm -f *.o

When make is run with the ‘-i’ flag, errors are ignored in all commands of all rules. A rule in the makefile for the special target .IGNORE has the same effect. These ways of ignoring errors are obsolete because ‘-’ is more flexible.

When errors are to be ignored, because of either a ‘-’ or the ‘-i’ flag, make treats an error return just like success, except that it prints out a message telling you the status code the command exited with and saying that the error has been ignored.

When an error happens that make has not been told to ignore, it implies that the current target cannot be correctly remade, and neither can any other that depends on it either directly or indirectly. No further commands will be executed for these targets, since their preconditions have not been achieved.

Normally make gives up immediately in this circumstance, returning a nonzero status. However, if the ‘-k’ flag is specified, make continues to consider the other dependencies of the pending targets, remaking them if necessary, before it gives up and returns nonzero status. For example, after an error in compiling one object file, ‘make -k’ will continue compiling other object files even though it already knows that linking them will be impossible. See section Summary of Options.

The usual behavior assumes that your purpose is to get the specified targets up to date; once make learns that this is impossible, it might as well report the failure immediately. The ‘-k’ option says that the real purpose is to test as much as possible of the changes made in the program, perhaps to find several independent problems so that you can correct them all before the next attempt to compile. This is why Emacs’s compile command passes the ‘-k’ flag by default.

6.5 Interrupting or Killing make

If make gets a fatal signal while a command is executing, it may delete the target file that the command was supposed to update. This is done if the target file’s last-modification time has changed since make first checked it.

The purpose of deleting the target is to make sure that it is remade from scratch when make is next run. Why is this? Suppose you type Ctrl-c while a compiler is running, and it has begun to write an object file ‘foo.o’. The Ctrl-c kills the compiler, resulting in an incomplete file whose last-modification time is newer than the source file ‘foo.c’. But make also receives the Ctrl-c signal and deletes this incomplete file. If make did not do this, the next invocation of make would think that ‘foo.o’ did not require updating—resulting in a strange error message from the linker when it tries to link an object file half of which is missing.

You can prevent the deletion of a target file in this way by making the special target .PRECIOUS depend on it. Before remaking a target, make checks to see whether it appears on the dependencies of .PRECIOUS, and thereby decides whether the target should be deleted if a signal happens. Some reasons why you might do this are that the target is updated in some atomic fashion, or exists only to record a modification-time (its contents do not matter), or must exist at all times to prevent other sorts of trouble.

6.6 Recursive Use of make

Recursive use of make means using make as a command in a makefile. This technique is useful when you want separate makefiles for various subsystems that compose a larger system. For example, suppose you have a subdirectory ‘subdir’ which has its own makefile, and you would like the containing directory’s makefile to run make on the subdirectory. You can do it by writing this:

subsystem:
        cd subdir; $(MAKE)

or, equivalently, this (see section Summary of Options):

subsystem:
        $(MAKE) -C subdir

You can write recursive make commands just by copying this example, but there are many things to know about how they work and why, and about how the sub-make relates to the top-level make.

6.6.1 How the MAKE Variable Works

Recursive make commands should always use the variable MAKE, not the explicit command name ‘make’, as shown here:

subsystem:
        cd subdir; $(MAKE)

The value of this variable is the file name with which make was invoked. If this file name was ‘/bin/make’, then the command executed is ‘cd subdir; /bin/make’. If you use a special version of make to run the top-level makefile, the same special version will be executed for recursive invocations.

Also, any arguments that define variable values are added to MAKE, so the sub-make gets them too. Thus, if you do ‘make CFLAGS=-O’, so that all C compilations will be optimized, the sub-make is run with ‘cd subdir; /bin/make CFLAGS=-O’.

As a special feature, using the variable MAKE in the commands of a rule alters the effects of the ‘-t’, ‘-n’ or ‘-q’ option. (See section Instead of Executing the Commands.)

Consider the command ‘make -t’ in the above example. Following the usual definition of ‘-t’, this would create a file named ‘subsystem’ and do nothing else. What you really want it to do is run ‘cd subdir; make -t’; but that would require executing the command, and ‘-t’ says not to execute commands.

The special feature makes this do what you want: whenever a rule’s commands use the variable MAKE, the flags ‘-t’, ‘-n’ or ‘-q’ do not apply to that rule. The commands of that rule are executed normally despite the presence of a flag that causes most commands not to be run. The usual MAKEFLAGS mechanism passes the flags to the sub-make (see section Communicating Options to a Sub-make), so your request to touch the files, or print the commands, is propagated to the subsystem.

6.6.2 Communicating Variables to a Sub-make

Most variable values of the top-level make are passed to the sub-make through the environment. These variables are defined in the sub-make as defaults, but do not override what is specified in the sub-make’s makefile.

Variables are passed down if their names consist only of letters, numbers and underscores. Some shells cannot cope with environment variable names consisting of characters other than letters, numbers, and underscores.

Variable are not passed down if they were created by default by make (see section Variables Used by Implicit Rules). The sub-make will define these for itself.

The way this works is that make adds each variable and its value to the environment for running each command. The sub-make, in turn, uses the environment to initialize its table of variable values. See section Variables from the Environment.

As a special feature, the variable MAKELEVEL is changed when it is passed down from level to level. This variable’s value is a string which is the depth of the level as a decimal number. The value is ‘0’ for the top-level make; ‘1’ for a sub-make, ‘2’ for a sub-sub-make, and so on. The incrementation happens when make sets up the environment for a command.

The main use of MAKELEVEL is to test it in a conditional directive (see section Conditional Parts of Makefiles); this way you can write a makefile that behaves one way if run recursively and another way if run directly by you.

You can use the variable MAKEFILES to cause all sub-make commands to use additional makefiles. The value of MAKEFILES is a whitespace-separated list of filenames. This variable, if defined in the outer-level makefile, is passed down through the environment as usual; then it serves as a list of extra makefiles for the sub-make to read before the usual or specified ones. See section The Variable MAKEFILES.

6.6.3 Communicating Options to a Sub-make

Flags such as ‘-s’ and ‘-k’ are passed automatically to the sub-make through the variable MAKEFLAGS. This variable is set up automatically by make to contain the flag letters that make received. Thus, if you do ‘make -ks’ then MAKEFLAGS gets the value ‘ks’.

As a consequence, every sub-make gets a value for MAKEFLAGS in its environment. In response, it takes the flags from that value and processes them as if they had been given as arguments. See section Summary of Options.

The options ‘-C’, ‘-f’, ‘-I’, ‘-o’, and ‘-W’ are not put into MAKEFLAGS; these options are not passed down.

The ‘-j’ (see section Parallel Execution) option is a special case. If you set it to some numeric value, ‘-j 1’ is always put into MAKEFLAGS instead of the value you specified. This is because if the ‘-j’ option were passed down to sub-makes, you would get many more jobs running in parallel than you asked for. If you give ‘-j’ with no numeric argument, meaning to run as many jobs as possible in parallel, this is passed down, since multiple infinities are no more than one.

If you don’t want to pass the other flags down, you must change the value of MAKEFLAGS, like this:

MAKEFLAGS=
subsystem:
        cd subdir; $(MAKE)

or like this:

subsystem:
        cd subdir; $(MAKE) MAKEFLAGS=

A similar variable MFLAGS exists also, for historical compatibility. It has the same value as MAKEFLAGS except that a hyphen is added at the beginning if it is not empty. MFLAGS was traditionally used explicitly in the recursive make command, like this:

subsystem:
        cd subdir; $(MAKE) $(MFLAGS)

but now MAKEFLAGS makes this usage redundant.

The MAKEFLAGS and MFLAGS variables can also be useful if you want to have certain options, such as ‘-k’ (see section Summary of Options) set each time you run make. Just put ‘MAKEFLAGS=k’ or ‘MFLAGS=-k’ in your environment. These variables may also be set in makefiles, so a makefile can specify additional flags that should also be in effect for that makefile.

If you do put MAKEFLAGS or MFLAGS in your environment, you should be sure not to include any options that will drastically affect the actions of make and undermine the purpose of makefiles and of make itself. For instance, the ‘-t’, ‘-n’, and ‘-q’ options, if put in one of these variables, could have disastrous consequences and would certainly have at least surprising and probably annoying effects.

6.6.4 The ‘-w’ Option

If you use several levels of recursive make invocations, the ‘-w’ option can make the output a lot easier to understand by showing each directory as make starts processing it and as make finishes processing it. For example, if ‘make -w’ is run in the directory ‘/u/gnu/make’, make will print a line of the form:

make: Entering directory `/u/gnu/make'.

before doing anything else, and a line of the form:

make: Leaving directory `/u/gnu/make'.

when processing is completed.

6.7 Defining Canned Command Sequences

When the same sequence of commands is useful in making various targets, you can define it as a canned sequence with the define directive, and refer to the canned sequence from the rules for those targets. The canned sequence is actually a variable, so the name must not conflict with other variable names.

Here is an example of defining a canned sequence of commands:

define run-yacc
yacc $(firstword $^)
mv y.tab.c $@
endef

Here run-yacc is the name of the variable being defined; endef marks the end of the definition; the lines in between are the commands. The define directive does not expand variable references and function calls in the canned sequence; the ‘$’ characters, parentheses, variable names, and so on, all become part of the value of the variable you are defining. See section Defining Variables Verbatim, for a complete explanation of define.

The first command in this example runs Yacc on the first dependency (of whichever rule uses the canned sequence). The output file from Yacc is always named ‘y.tab.c’. The second command moves the output to the rule’s target file name.

To use the canned sequence, substitute the variable into the commands of a rule. You can substitute it like any other variable (see section Basics of Variable References). Because variables defined by define are recursively expanded variables, all the variable references you wrote inside the define are expanded now. For example:

foo.c : foo.y
        $(run-yacc)

‘foo.y’ will substituted for the variable ‘$^’ when it occurs in run-yacc’s value, and ‘foo.c’ for ‘$@’.

This is a realistic example, but this particular one is not needed in practice because make has an implicit rule to figure out these commands based on the file names involved. See section Using Implicit Rules.

6.8 Defining Empty Commands

It is sometimes useful to define commands which do nothing. This is done simply by giving a command that consists of nothing but whitespace. For example:

target:;

defines an empty command string for ‘target’. You could also use a line beginning with a tab character to define an empty command string, but this would be confusing because such a line looks empty.

You may be wondering why you would want to define a command string that does nothing. The only reason this is useful is to prevent a target from getting implicit commands (from implicit rules or the .DEFAULT special target; see section Using Implicit Rules and see section Defining Last-Resort Default Rules).

You may be inclined to define empty command strings for targets that are not actual files, but only exist so that their dependencies can be remade. However, this is not the best way to do that, because if the target file actually does exist, its dependencies may not be remade. See section Phony Targets, for a better way to do this.

7 How to Use Variables

A variable is a name defined within make to represent a string of text, called the variable’s value. These values can be substituted by explicit request into targets, dependencies, commands and other parts of the makefile.

Variables can represent lists of file names, options to pass to compilers, programs to run, directories to look in for source files, directories to write output in, or anything else you can imagine.

A variable name may be any sequence characters not containing ‘:’, ‘#’, ‘=’, or leading or trailing whitespace. However, variable names containing characters other than letters, numbers and underscores should be avoided, as they may be given special meanings in the future, and they are not passed through the environment to a sub-make (see section Communicating Variables to a Sub-make).

It is traditional to use upper case letters in variable names, but we recommend using lower case letters for variable names that serve internal purposes in the makefile, and reserving upper case for parameters that control implicit rules or for parameters that the user should override with command options (see section Overriding Variables).

7.1 Basics of Variable References

To substitute a variable’s value, write a dollar sign followed by the name of the variable in parentheses or braces: either ‘$(foo)’ or ‘${foo}’ is a valid reference to the variable foo. This special significance of ‘$’ is why you must write ‘$$’ to have the effect of a single dollar sign in a file name or command.

Variable references can be used in any context: targets, dependencies, commands, most directives, and new variable values. Here is a common kind of example, where a variable holds the names of all the object files in a program:

objects = program.o foo.o utils.o
program : $(objects)
        cc -o program $(objects)

$(objects) : defs.h

Variable references work by strict textual substitution. Thus, the rule

foo = c
prog.o : prog.c
        $(foo)$(foo) prog.c

could be used to compile a C program ‘prog.c’. Since spaces around the variable value are ignored in variable assignments, the value of foo is precisely ‘c’. (Don’t actually write your makefiles this way!)

A dollar sign followed by a character other than a dollar sign, open-parenthesis or open-brace treats that single character as the variable name. Thus, you could reference the variable x with ‘$x’. However, this practice is strongly discouraged, except in the case of the automatic variables (see section Automatic Variables).

7.2 The Two Flavors of Variables

There are two ways that a variables in GNU make can have a value; we call them two flavors of variables. The two flavors are distinguished in how they are defined and in what they do when expanded.

The first flavor of variable is a recursively expanded variable. Variables of this sort are defined by lines using ‘=’ (see section Setting Variables). The value you specify is installed verbatim; if it contains references to other variables, these references are expanded whenever this variable is substituted (in the course of expanding some other string). When this happens, it is called recursive expansion.

For example,

foo = $(bar)
bar = $(ugh)
ugh = Huh?

all:;echo $(foo)

will echo ‘Huh?’: ‘$(foo)’ expands to ‘$(bar)’ which expands to ‘$(ugh)’ which finally expands to ‘Huh?’.

This flavor of variable is the only sort supported by other versions of make. It has its advantages and its disadvantages. An advantage (most would say) is that:

CFLAGS = $(include_dirs) -O
include_dirs = -Ifoo -Ibar

will do what was intended: when ‘CFLAGS’ is expanded in a command, it will expand to ‘-Ifoo -Ibar -O’. A major disadvantage is that you can’t append something on the end of a variable, as in

CFLAGS = $(CFLAGS) -O

because it will cause an infinite loop in the variable expansion. (Actually make detects the infinite loop and reports an error.)

Another disadvantage is that any functions (see section Functions for Transforming Text) referenced in the definition will be executed every time the variable is expanded. This makes make run slower; worse, it causes the wildcard and shell functions to give unpredictable results because you cannot easily control when they are called, or even how many times.

To avoid all the problems and inconveniences of recursively expanded variables, there is another flavor: simply expanded variables.

Simply expanded variables are defined by lines using ‘:=’ (see section Setting Variables). The value of a simply expanded variable is scanned once and for all, expanding any references to other variables and functions, when the variable is defined. The actual value of the simply expanded variable is the result of expanding the text that you write. It does not contain any references to other variables; it contains their values as of the time this variable was defined. Therefore,

x := foo
y := $(x) bar
x := later

is equivalent to

y := foo bar
x := later

When a simply expanded variable is referenced, its value is substituted verbatim.

Simply expanded variables generally make complicated makefile programming more predictable because they work like variables in most programming languages. They allow you to redefine a variable using its own value (or its value processed in some way by one of the expansion functions) and to use the expansion functions much more efficiently (see section Functions for Transforming Text).

You can also use them to introduce controlled leading or trailing spaces into variable values. Such spaces are discarded from your input before substitution of variable references and function calls; this means you can include leading or trailing spaces in a variable value by protecting them with variable references, like this:

nullstring :=
space := $(nullstring) $(nullstring)

Here the value of the variable space is precisely one space.

7.3 Advanced Features for Reference to Variables

This section describes some advanced features you can use to reference variables in more flexible ways.

7.3.1 Substitution References

A substitution reference substitutes the value of a variable with alterations that you specify. It has the form ‘$(var:a=b)’ (or ‘${var:a=b}’) and its meaning is to take the value of the variable var, replace every a at the end of a word with b in that value, and substitute the resulting string.

When we say “at the end of a word”, we mean that a must appear either followed by whitespace or at the end of the value in order to be replaced; other occurrences of a in the value are unaltered. For example:

foo := a.o b.o c.o
bar := $(foo:.o=.c)

sets ‘bar’ to ‘a.c b.c c.c’. See section Setting Variables.

A substitution reference is actually an abbreviation for use of the patsubst expansion function (see section Functions for String Substitution and Analysis). We provide substitution references as well as patsubst for compatibility with other implementations of make.

Another type of substitution reference lets you use the full power of the patsubst function. It has the same form ‘$(var:a=b)’ described above, except that now a must contain a single ‘%’ character. This case is equivalent to ‘$(patsubst a,b,$(var))’. See section Functions for String Substitution and Analysis, for a description of the patsubst function. For example:

foo := a.o b.o c.o
bar := $(foo:%.o=%.c)

sets ‘bar’ to ‘a.c b.c c.c’.

7.3.2 Computed Variable Names

Computed variable names are a complicated concept needed only for sophisticated makefile programming. For most purposes you need not consider about them, except to know that making a variable with a dollar sign in its name might have strange results. However, if you are the type that wants to understand everything, or you are actually interested in what they do, read on.

Variables may be referenced inside the name of a variable. This is called a computed variable name or a nested variable reference. For example,

x = y
y = z
a := $($(x))

defines a as ‘z’: the ‘$(x)’ inside ‘$($(x))’ expands to ‘y’, so ‘$($(x))’ expands to ‘$(y)’ which in turn expands to ‘z’. Here the name of the variable to reference is not stated explicitly; it is computed by expansion of ‘$(x)’. The reference ‘$(x)’ here is nested within the outer variable reference.

The previous example shows two levels of nesting, but any number of levels is possible. For example, here are three levels:

x = y
y = z
z = u
a := $($($(x)))

Here the innermost ‘$(x)’ expands to ‘y’, so ‘$($(x))’ expands to ‘$(y)’ which in turn expands to ‘z’; now we have ‘$(z)’, which becomes ‘u’.

References to recursively-expanded variables within a variable name are reexpanded in the usual fashion. For example:

x = $(y)
y = z
z = Hello
a := $($(x))

defines a as ‘Hello’: ‘$($(x))’ becomes ‘$($(y))’ which becomes ‘$(z)’ which becomes ‘Hello’.

Nested variable references can also contain modified references and function invocations (see section Functions for Transforming Text), just like any other reference. For example, using the subst function (see section Functions for String Substitution and Analysis):

x = variable1
variable2 := Hello
y = $(subst 1,2,$(x))
z = y
a := $($($(z)))

eventually defines a as ‘Hello’. It is doubtful that anyone would ever want to write a nested reference as convoluted as this one, but it works: ‘$($($(z)))’ expands to ‘$($(y))’ which becomes ‘$($(subst 1,2,$(x)))’. This gets the value ‘variable1’ from x and changes it by substitution to ‘variable2’, so that the entire string becomes ‘$(variable2)’, a simple variable reference whose value is ‘Hello’.

A computed variable name need not consist entirely of a single variable reference. It can contain several variable references, as well as some invariant text. For example,

a_dirs := dira dirb
1_dirs := dir1 dir2

a_files := filea fileb
1_files := file1 file2

ifeq "$(use_a)" "yes"
a1 := a
else
a1 := 1
endif

ifeq "$(use_dirs)" "yes"
df := dirs
else
df := files
endif

dirs := $($(a1)_$(df))

will give dirs the same value as a_dirs, 1_dirs, a_files or 1_files depending on the settings of use_a and use_dirs.

Computed variable names can also be used in substitution references:

a_objects := a.o b.o c.o
1_objects := 1.o 2.o 3.o

sources := $($(a1)_object:.o=.c)

defines sources as either ‘a.c b.c c.c’ or ‘1.c 2.c 3.c’, depending on the value of a1.

The only restriction on this sort of use of nested variable references is that they cannot specify part of the name of a function to be called. This is because the test for a recognized function name is done before the expansion of nested references. For example,

ifdef do_sort
func := sort
else
func := strip
endif

bar := a d b g q c

foo := $($(func) $(bar))

attempts to give ‘foo’ the value of the variable ‘sort a d b g q c’ or ‘strip a d b g q c’, rather than giving ‘a d b g q c’ as the argument to either the sort or the strip function. This restriction could be removed in the future if that change is shown to be a good idea.

Note that nested variable references are quite different from recursively expanded variables (see section The Two Flavors of Variables), though both are used together in complex ways when doing makefile programming.

7.4 How Variables Get Their Values

Variables can get values in several different ways:

• You can specify an overriding value when you run make. See section Overriding Variables.
• You can specify a value in the makefile, either with an assignment (see section Setting Variables) or with a verbatim definition (see section Defining Variables Verbatim).
• Values are inherited from the environment. See section Variables from the Environment.
• Several automatic variables are given new values for each rule. Each of these has a single conventional use. See section Automatic Variables.
• Several variables have constant initial values. See section Variables Used by Implicit Rules.

7.5 Setting Variables

To set a variable from the makefile, write a line starting with the variable name followed by ‘=’ or ‘:=’. Whatever follows the ‘=’ or ‘:=’ on the line becomes the value. For example,

objects = main.o foo.o bar.o utils.o

defines a variable named objects. Whitespace around the variable name and after the ‘=’ is ignored.

Variables defined with ‘=’ are recursively expanded variables. Variables defined with ‘:=’ are simply expanded variables; these definitions can contain variable references which will be expanded before the definition is made. See section The Two Flavors of Variables.

There is no limit on the length of the value of a variable except the amount of swapping space on the computer. When a variable definition is long, it is a good idea to break it into several lines by inserting backslash-newline at convenient places in the definition. This will not affect the functioning of make, but it will make the makefile easier to read.

Most variable names are considered to have the empty string as a value if you have never set them. Several variables have built-in initial values that are not empty, but can be set by you in the usual ways (see section Variables Used by Implicit Rules). Several special variables are set automatically to a new value for each rule; these are called the automatic variables (see section Automatic Variables).

7.6 The override Directive

If a variable has been set with a command argument (see section Overriding Variables), then ordinary assignments in the makefile are ignored. If you want to set the variable in the makefile even though it was set with a command argument, you can use an override directive, which is a line that looks like this:

override variable = value

or

override variable := value

The override directive was not invented for escalation in the war between makefiles and command arguments. It was invented so you can alter and add to values that the user specifies with command arguments.

For example, suppose you always want the ‘-g’ switch when you run the C compiler, but you would like to allow the user to specify the other switches with a command argument just as usual. You could use this override directive:

override CFLAGS := $(CFLAGS) -g

You can also use override directives with define directives. This is done as you might expect:

override define foo
bar
endef

7.7 Defining Variables Verbatim

Another way to set the value of a variable is to use the define directive. This directive has a different syntax which allows newline characters to be included in the value, which is convenient for defining canned sequences of commands (see section Defining Canned Command Sequences).

The define directive is followed on the same line by the name of the variable and nothing more. The value to give the variable appears on the following lines. The end of the value is marked by a line containing just the word endef. Aside from this difference in syntax, define works just like ‘=’; it creates a recursively-expanded variable (see section The Two Flavors of Variables).

define two-lines
echo foo
echo $(bar)
endef

The value in an ordinary assignment cannot contain a newline; but the newlines that separate the lines of the value in a define become part of the variable’s value (except for the final newline which precedes the endef and is not considered part of the value).

The previous example is functionally equivalent to this:

two-lines = echo foo; echo $(bar)

since the shell will interpret the semicolon and the newline identically.

If you want variable definitions made with define to take precedence over command-line variable definitions, the override directive can be used together with define:

override define two-lines
foo
$(bar)
endef

See section The override Directive.

7.8 Variables from the Environment

Variables in make can come from the environment with which make is run. Every environment variable that make sees when it starts up is transformed into a make variable with the same name and value. But an explicit assignment in the makefile, or with a command argument, overrides the environment. (If the ‘-e’ flag is specified, then values from the environment override assignments in the makefile. See section Summary of Options. But this is not recommended practice.)

Thus, by setting the variable CFLAGS in your environment, you can cause all C compilations in most makefiles to use the compiler switches you prefer. This is safe for variables with standard or conventional meanings because you know that no makefile will use them for other things. (But this is not totally reliable; some makefiles set CFLAGS explicitly and therefore are not affected by the value in the environment.)

When make is invoked recursively, variables defined in the outer invocation are automatically passed to inner invocations through the environment (see section Recursive Use of make). This is the main purpose of turning environment variables into make variables, and it requires no attention from you.

Other use of variables from the environment is not recommended. It is not wise for makefiles to depend for their functioning on environment variables set up outside their control, since this would cause different users to get different results from the same makefile. This is against the whole purpose of most makefiles.

Such problems would be especially likely with the variable SHELL, which is normally present in the environment to specify the user’s choice of interactive shell. It would be very undesirable for this choice to affect make. So make ignores the environment value of SHELL if the value of MAKELEVEL is zero (which is normally true except in recursive invocations of make).

8 Conditional Parts of Makefiles

A conditional causes part of a makefile to be obeyed or ignored depending on the values of variables. Conditionals can compare the value of one variable with another, or the value of a variable with a constant string. Conditionals control what make actually “sees” in the makefile, so they cannot be used to control shell commands at the time of execution.

8.1 Example of a Conditional

This conditional tells make to use one set of libraries if the CC variable is ‘gcc’, and a different set of libraries otherwise. It works by controlling which of two command lines will be used as the command for a rule. The result is that ‘CC=gcc’ as an argument to make changes not only which compiler is used but also which libraries are linked.

libs_for_gcc = -lgnu
normal_libs =

foo: $(objects)
ifeq ($(CC),gcc)
        $(CC) -o foo $(objects) $(libs_for_gcc)
else
        $(CC) -o foo $(objects) $(normal_libs)
endif

This conditional uses three directives: one ifeq, one else and one endif.

The ifeq directive begins the conditional, and specifies the condition. It contains two arguments, separated by a comma and surrounded by parentheses. Variable substitution is performed on both arguments and then they are compared. The lines of the makefile following the ifeq are obeyed if the two arguments match; otherwise they are ignored.

The else directive causes the following lines to be obeyed if the previous conditional failed. In the example above, this means that the second alternative linking command is used whenever the first alternative is not used. It is optional to have an else in a conditional.

The endif directive ends the conditional. Every conditional must end with an endif. Unconditional makefile text follows.

Conditionals work at the textual level: the lines of the conditional are treated as part of the makefile, or ignored, according to the condition. This is why the larger syntactic units of the makefile, such as rules, may cross the beginning or the end of the conditional.

When the variable CC has the value ‘gcc’, the above example has this effect:

foo: $(objects)
        $(CC) -o foo $(objects) $(libs_for_gcc)

When the variable CC has any other value, the effect is this:

foo: $(objects)
        $(CC) -o foo $(objects) $(normal_libs)

Equivalent results can be obtained in another way by conditionalizing a variable assignment and then using the variable unconditionally:

libs_for_gcc = -lgnu
normal_libs =

ifeq ($(CC),gcc)
  libs=$(libs_for_gcc)
else
  libs=$(normal_libs)
endif

foo: $(objects)
        $(CC) -o foo $(objects) $(libs)

8.2 Syntax of Conditionals

The syntax of a simple conditional with no else is as follows:

conditional-directive
text-if-true
endif

The text-if-true may be any lines of text, to be considered as part of the makefile if the condition is true. If the condition is false, no text is used instead.

The syntax of a complex conditional is as follows:

conditional-directive
text-if-true
else
text-if-false
endif

If the condition is true, text-if-true is used; otherwise, text-if-false is used instead. The text-if-false can be any number of lines of text.

The syntax of the conditional-directive is the same whether the conditional is simple or complex. There are four different directives that test different conditions. Here is a table of them:

ifeq (arg1, arg2)

ifeq 'arg1' 'arg2'

ifeq "arg1" "arg2"

ifeq "arg1" 'arg2'

ifeq 'arg1' "arg2"

Expand all variable references in arg1 and arg2 and compare them. If they are identical, the text-if-true is effective; otherwise, the text-if-false, if any, is effective.

ifneq (arg1, arg2)

ifneq 'arg1' 'arg2'

ifneq "arg1" "arg2"

ifneq "arg1" 'arg2'

ifneq 'arg1' "arg2"

Expand all variable references in arg1 and arg2 and compare them. If they are different, the text-if-true is effective; otherwise, the text-if-false, if any, is effective.

ifdef variable-name

If the variable variable-name has a non-empty value, the text-if-true is effective; otherwise, the text-if-false, if any, is effective. Variables that have never been defined have an empty value.

ifndef variable-name

If the variable variable-name has an empty value, the text-if-true is effective; otherwise, the text-if-false, if any, is effective.

Extra spaces are allowed and ignored at the beginning of the conditional directive line, but a tab is not allowed. (If the line begins with a tab, it will be considered a command for a rule.) Aside from this, extra spaces or tabs may be inserted with no effect anywhere except within the directive name or within an argument. A comment starting with ‘#’ may appear at the end of the line.

The other two directives that play a part in a conditional are else and endif. Each of these directives is written as one word, with no arguments. Extra spaces are allowed and ignored at the beginning of the line, and spaces or tabs at the end. A comment starting with ‘#’ may appear at the end of the line.

Conditionals work at the textual level. The lines of the text-if-true are read as part of the makefile if the condition is true; if the condition is false, those lines are ignored completely. It follows that syntactic units of the makefile, such as rules, may safely be split across the beginning or the end of the conditional.

To prevent intolerable confusion, it is not permitted to start a conditional in one makefile and end it in another. However, you may write an include directive within a conditional, provided you do not attempt to terminate the conditional inside the included file.

8.3 Conditionals that Test Flags

You can write a conditional that tests make command flags such as ‘-t’ by using the variable MAKEFLAGS together with the findstring function. This is useful when touch is not enough to make a file appear up to date.

The findstring function determines whether one string appears as a substring of another. If you want to test for the ‘-t’ flag, use ‘t’ as the first string and the value of MAKEFLAGS as the other.

For example, here is how to arrange to use ‘ranlib -t’ to finish marking an archive file up to date:

archive.a: …
ifneq (,$(findstring t,$(MAKEFLAGS)))
        @echo $(MAKE) > /dev/null
        touch archive.a
        ranlib -t archive.a
else
        ranlib archive.a
endif

The echo command does nothing when executed; but its presence, with a reference to the variable MAKE, marks the rule as “recursive” so that its commands will be executed despite use of the ‘-t’ flag. See section Recursive Use of make.

9 Functions for Transforming Text

Functions allow you to do text processing in the makefile to compute the files to operate on or the commands to use. You use a function in a function call, where you give the name of the function and some text (the arguments) for the function to operate on. The result of the function’s processing is substituted into the makefile at the point of the call, just as a variable might be substituted.

9.1 Function Call Syntax

A function call resembles a variable reference. It looks like this:

$(function arguments)

or like this:

${function arguments}

Here function is a function name; one of a short list of names that are part of make. There is no provision for defining new functions.

The arguments are the arguments of the function. They are separated from the function name by one or more spaces and/or tabs, and if there is more than one argument they are separated by commas. Such whitespace and commas are not part of any argument’s value. The delimiters which you use to surround the function call, whether parentheses or braces, can appear in an argument only in matching pairs; the other kind of delimiters may appear singly. If the arguments themselves contain other function calls or variable references, it is wisest to use the same kind of delimiters for all the references; in other words, write ‘$(subst a,b,$(x))’, not ‘$(subst a,b,${x})’. This is both because it is clearer, and because only one type of delimiters is matched to find the end of the reference. Thus in ‘$(subst a,b,${subst c,d,${x}})’ doesn’t work because the second subst function invocation ends at the first ‘}’, not the second.

The text written for each argument is processed by substitution of variables and function calls to produce the argument value, which is the text on which the function acts. The substitution is done in the order in which the arguments appear.

Commas and unmatched parentheses or braces cannot appear in the text of an argument as written; leading spaces cannot appear in the text of the first argument as written. These characters can be put into the argument value by variable substitution. First define variables comma and space whose values are isolated comma and space characters, then substitute those variables where such characters are wanted, like this:

comma:= ,
space:= $(empty) $(empty)
foo:= a b c
bar:= $(subst $(space),$(comma),$(foo))
# bar is now `a,b,c'.

Here the subst function replaces each space with a comma, through the value of foo, and substitutes the result.

9.2 Functions for String Substitution and Analysis

Here are some functions that operate on strings:

$(subst from,to,text)

Performs a textual replacement on the text text: each occurrence of from is replaced by to. The result is substituted for the function call. For example,

$(subst ee,EE,feet on the street)

substitutes the string ‘fEEt on the strEEt’.

$(patsubst pattern,replacement,text)

Finds whitespace-separated words in text that match pattern and replaces them with replacement. Here pattern may contain a ‘%’ which acts as a wildcard, matching any number of any characters within a word. If replacement also contains a ‘%’, the ‘%’ is replaced by the text that matched the ‘%’ in pattern.

‘%’ characters in patsubst function invocations can be quoted with preceding backslashes (‘\’). Backslashes that would otherwise quote ‘%’ characters can be quoted with more backslashes. Backslashes that quote ‘%’ characters or other backslashes are removed from the pattern before it is compared file names or has a stem substituted into it. Backslashes that are not in danger of quoting ‘%’ characters go unmolested. For example, the pattern ‘the\%weird\\%pattern\\’ has ‘the%weird\’ preceding the operative ‘%’ character, and ‘pattern\\’ following it. The final two backslashes are left alone because they can’t affect any ‘%’ character.

Whitespace between words is folded into single space characters; leading and trailing whitespace is discarded.

For example,

$(patsubst %.c,%.o,x.c.c bar.c)

produces the value ‘x.c.o bar.o’.

$(strip string)

Removes leading and trailing whitespace from string and replaces each internal sequence of one or more whitespace characters with a single space. Thus, ‘$(strip a b c )’ results in ‘a b c’.

$(findstring find,in)

Searches in for an occurrence of find. If it occurs, the value is find; otherwise, the value is empty. You can use this function in a conditional to test for the presence of a specific substring in a given string. Thus, the two examples,

$(findstring a,a b c)
$(findstring a,b c)

produce the values ‘a’ and ‘’, respectively. See section Conditionals that Test Flags, for a practical application of findstring.

$(filter pattern,text)

Removes all whitespace-separated words in text that do not match pattern, returning only matching words. The pattern is written using ‘%’, just like the patterns used in patsubst function above.

The filter function can be used to separate out different types of strings (such as filenames) in a variable. For example:

sources := foo.c bar.c ugh.h
foo: $(sources)
        cc $(filter %.c,$(sources)) -o foo

says that ‘foo’ depends of ‘foo.c’, ‘bar.c’ and ‘ugh.h’ but only ‘foo.c’ and ‘bar.c’ should be specified in the command to the compiler.

$(filter-out pattern,text)

Removes all whitespace-separated words in text that do match pattern, returning only the words that match. This is the exact opposite of the filter function.

$(sort list)

Sorts the words of list in lexical order, removing duplicate words. The output is a list of words separated by single spaces. Thus,

$(sort foo bar lose)

returns the value ‘bar foo lose’.

Here is a realistic example of the use of subst and patsubst. Suppose that a makefile uses the VPATH variable to specify a list of directories that make should search for dependency files. This example shows how to tell the C compiler to search for header files in the same list of directories.

The value of VPATH is a list of directories separated by colons, such as ‘src:../headers’. First, the subst function is used to change the colons to spaces:

$(subst :, ,$(VPATH))

This produces ‘src ../headers’. Then patsubst is used to turn each directory name into a ‘-I’ flag. These can be added to the value of the variable CFLAGS, which is passed automatically to the C compiler, like this:

override CFLAGS:= $(CFLAGS) $(patsubst %,-I%,$(subst :, ,$(VPATH)))

The effect is to append the text ‘-Isrc -I../headers’ to the previously given value of CFLAGS. The override directive is used so that the new value is assigned even if the previous value of CFLAGS was specified with a command argument (see section The override Directive).

The function strip can be very useful when used in conjunction with conditionals. When comparing something with the null string ‘""’ using ifeq or ifneq, you usually want a string of just whitespace to match the null string. Thus,

.PHONY: all
ifneq   "$(needs_made)" ""
all: $(needs_made)
else
all:;@echo 'Nothing to make!'
endif

might fail to have the desired results. Replacing the variable reference ‘"$(needs_made)"’ with the function call ‘"$(strip $(needs_made))"’ in the ifneq directive would make it more robust.

9.3 Functions for File Names

Several of the built-in expansion functions relate specifically to taking apart file names or lists of file names.

Each of the following functions performs a specific transformation on a file name. The argument of the function is regarded as a series of file names, separated by whitespace. (Leading and trailing whitespace is ignored.) Each file name in the series is transformed in the same way and the results are concatenated with single spaces between them.

$(dir names)

Extracts the directory-part of each file name in names. The directory-part of the file name is everything up through (and including) the last slash in it. If the file name contains no slash, the directory part is the string ‘./’. For example,

$(dir src/foo.c hacks)

produces the result ‘src/ ./’.

$(notdir names)

Extracts all but the directory-part of each file name in names. If the file name contains no slash, it is left unchanged. Otherwise, everything through the last slash is removed from it.

A file name that ends with a slash becomes an empty string. This is unfortunate, because it means that the result does not always have the same number of whitespace-separated file names as the argument had; but we do not see any other valid alternative.

For example,

$(notdir src/foo.c hacks)

produces the result ‘foo.c hacks’.

$(suffix names)

Extracts the suffix of each file name in names. If the file name contains a period, the suffix is everything starting with the last period. Otherwise, the suffix is the empty string. This frequently means that the result will be empty when names is not, and if names contains multiple file names, the result may contain fewer file names.

For example,

$(suffix src/foo.c hacks)

produces the result ‘.c’.

$(basename names)

Extracts all but the suffix of each file name in names. If the file name contains a period, the basename is everything starting up to (and not including) the last period. Otherwise, the basename is the entire file name. For example,

$(basename src/foo.c hacks)

produces the result ‘src/foo hacks’.

$(addsuffix suffix,names)

The argument names is regarded as a series of names, separated by whitespace; suffix is used as a unit. The value of suffix is appended to the end of each individual name and the resulting larger names are concatenated with single spaces between them. For example,

$(addsuffix .c,foo bar)

produces the result ‘foo.c bar.c’.

$(addprefix prefix,names)

The argument names is regarded as a series of names, separated by whitespace; prefix is used as a unit. The value of prefix is appended to the front of each individual name and the resulting larger names are concatenated with single spaces between them. For example,

$(addprefix src/,foo bar)

produces the result ‘src/foo src/bar’.

$(join list1,list2)

Concatenates the two arguments word by word: the two first words (one from each argument) concatenated form the first word of the result, the two second words form the second word of the result, and so on. So the nth word of the result comes from the nth word of each argument. If one argument has more words that the other, the extra words are copied unchanged into the result.

For example, ‘$(join a b,.c .o)’ produces ‘a.c b.o’.

Whitespace between the words in the lists is not preserved; it is replaced with a single space.

This function can merge the results of the dir and notdir functions, to produce the original list of files which was given to those two functions.

$(word n,text)

Returns the nth word of text. The legitimate values of n start from 1. If n is bigger than the number of words in text, the value is empty. For example,

$(word 2, foo bar baz)

returns ‘bar’.

$(words text)

Returns the number of words in text. Thus, $(word $(words text),text) is the last word of text.

$(firstword names)

The argument names is regarded as a series of names, separated by whitespace. The value is the first name in the series. The rest of the names are ignored. For example,

$(firstword foo bar)

produces the result ‘foo’. Although $(firstword text) is the same as $(word 1,text), the firstword function is retained for its simplicity.

$(wildcard pattern)

The argument pattern is a file name pattern, typically containing wildcard characters. The result of wildcard is a space-separated list of the names of existing files that match the pattern.

Wildcards are expanded automatically in rules. See section Using Wildcards Characters in File Names. But they are not normally expanded when a variable is set, or inside the arguments of other functions. Those occasions are when the wildcard function is useful.

9.4 The foreach Function

The foreach function is very different from other functions. It causes one piece of text to be used repeatedly, each time with a different substitution performed on it. It resembles the for command in the shell sh and the foreach command in the C-shell csh.

The syntax of the foreach function is:

$(foreach var,list,text)

The first two arguments, var and list, are expanded before anything else is done; note that the last argument, text, is not expanded at the same time. Then for each word of the expanded value of list, the variable named by the expanded value of var is set to that word, and text is expanded. Presumably text contains references to that variable, so its expansion will be different each time.

The result is that text is expanded as many times as there are whitespace-separated words in list. The multiple expansions of text are concatenated, with spaces between them, to make the result of foreach.

This simple example sets the variable ‘files’ to the list of all files in the directories in the list ‘dirs’:

dirs := a b c d
files := $(foreach dir,$(dirs),$(wildcard $(dir)/*))

Here text is ‘$(wildcard $(dir)/*)’. The first repetition finds the value ‘a’ for dir, so it produces the same result as ‘$(wildcard a/*)’; the second repetition produces the result of ‘$(wildcard b/*)’; and the third, that of ‘$(wildcard c/*)’.

This example has the same result (except for setting ‘find_files’, ‘dirs’ and ‘dir’) as the following example:

files := $(wildcard a/* b/* c/* d/*)

When text is complicated, you can improve readability by giving it a name, with an additional variable:

find_files = $(wildcard $(dir)/*)
dirs := a b c d
files := $(foreach dir,$(dirs),$(find_files))

Here we use the variable find_files this way. We use plain ‘=’ to define a recursively-expanding variable, so that its value contains an actual function call to be reexpanded under the control of foreach; a simply-expanded variable would not do, since wildcard would be called only once at the time of defining find_files.

The foreach function has no permanent effect on the variable var; its value and flavor after the foreach function call are the same as they were beforehand. The other values which are taken from list are in effect only temporarily, during the execution of foreach. The variable var is a simply-expanded variable during the execution of foreach. If var was undefined before the foreach function call, it is undefined after the call. See section The Two Flavors of Variables.

You must take care when using complex variable expressions that result in variable names because many strange things are valid variable names, but are probably not what you intended. For example,

files := $(foreach Es escrito en espanol!,b c ch,$(find_files))

might be useful if the value of find_files references the variable whose name is ‘Es escrito en espanol!’ (es un nombre bastante largo, que no?), but it is more likely to be a mistake.

9.5 The origin Function

The origin function is unlike most other functions in that it does not operate on the values of variables; it tells you something about a variable. Specifically, it tells you where it came from.

The syntax of the origin function is:

$(origin variable)

Note that variable is the name of a variable to inquire about; not a reference to that variable. Therefore you would not normally use a ‘$’ or parentheses when writing it. (You can, however, use a variable reference in the name if you want the name not to be a constant.)

The result of this function is a string telling you how the variable variable was defined:

‘undefined’

if variable was never defined.

‘default’

if variable has a default definition, as is usual with CC and so on. See section Variables Used by Implicit Rules. Note that if you have redefined a default variable, the origin function will return the origin of the later definition.

‘environment’

if variable was defined as an environment variable and the ‘-e’ option is not turned on (see section Summary of Options).

‘environment override’

if variable was defined as an environment variable and the ‘-e’ option is turned on (see section Summary of Options).

‘file’

if variable was defined in a makefile.

‘command line’

if variable was defined on the command line.

‘override’

if variable was defined with an override directive in a makefile (see section The override Directive).

‘automatic’

if variable is an automatic variable defined for the execution of the commands for each rule.

This information is primarily useful (other than for your curiosity) to determine if you want to believe the value of a variable. For example, suppose you have a makefile ‘foo’ that includes another makefile ‘bar’. You want a variable bletch to be defined in ‘bar’ if you run the command ‘make -f bar’, even if the environment contains a definition of bletch. However, if ‘foo’ defined bletch before including ‘bar’, you don’t want to override that definition. This could be done by using an override directive in ‘foo’, giving that definition precedence over the later definition in ‘bar’; unfortunately, the override directive would also override any command line definitions. So, ‘bar’ could include:

ifdef bletch
ifeq "$(origin bletch)" "environment"
bletch = barf, gag, etc.
endif
endif

If bletch has been defined from the environment, this will redefine it.

If you want to override a previous definition of bletch if it came from the environment, even under ‘-e’, you could instead write:

ifneq "$(findstring environment,$(origin bletch))" ""
bletch = barf, gag, etc.
endif

Here the redefinition takes place if ‘$(origin bletch)’ returns either ‘environment’ or ‘environment override’.

9.6 The shell Function

The shell function is unlike any other function except the wildcard function (see section The Function wildcard) in that it communicates with the world outside of make.

The shell function performs the same function that backquotes (‘`’) perform in most shells: it does command expansion. This means that it takes an argument that is a shell command and returns the output of the command. The only processing make does on the result, before substituting it into the surrounding text, is to convert newlines to spaces.

The commands run by calls to the shell function are run when the function calls are expanded. In most cases, this is when the makefile is read in. The exception is that function calls in the commands of the rules are expanded when the commands are run, and this applies to shell function calls like all others.

Here are some examples of the use of the shell function:

contents := $(shell cat foo)

sets contents to the contents of the file ‘foo’, with a space (rather than a newline) separating each line.

files := $(shell echo *.c)

sets files to the expansion of ‘*.c’. Unless make is using a very strange shell, this has the same result as ‘$(wildcard *.c)’.

10 How to Run make

A makefile that says how to recompile a program can be used in more than one way. The simplest use is to recompile every file that is out of date. This is what make will do if run with no arguments.

But you might want to update only some of the files; you might want to use a different compiler or different compiler options; you might want just to find out which files are out of date without changing them.

By specifying arguments when you run make, you can do any of these things or many others.

10.1 Arguments to Specify the Makefile

The way to specify the name of the makefile is with the ‘-f’ option. For example, ‘-f altmake’ says to use the file ‘altmake’ as the makefile.

If you use the ‘-f’ flag several times (each time with a following argument), all the specified files are used jointly as makefiles.

If you do not use the ‘-f’ flag, the default is to try ‘GNUmakefile’, ‘makefile’, or ‘Makefile’, in that order, and use the first of these three which exists. See section Writing Makefiles.

10.2 Arguments to Specify the Goals

The goals are the targets that make should strive ultimately to update. Other targets are updated as well if they appear as dependencies of goals, or dependencies of dependencies of goals, etc.

By default, the goal is the first target in the makefile (not counting targets that start with a period). Therefore, makefiles are usually written so that the first target is for compiling the entire program or programs they describe.

You can specify a different goal or goals with arguments to make. Use the name of the goal as an argument. If you specify several goals, make processes each of them in turn, in the order you name them.

Any target in the makefile may be specified as a goal (unless it starts with ‘-’ or contains an ‘=’). Even targets not in the makefile may be specified, if make can find implicit rules that say how to make them.

One use of specifying a goal is if you want to compile only a part of the program, or only one of several programs. Specify as a goal each file that you wish to remake. For example, consider a directory containing several programs, with a makefile that starts like this:

.PHONY: all
all: size nm ld ar as

If you are working on the program size, you might want to say ‘make size’ so that only the files of that program are recompiled.

Another use of specifying a goal is to make files that aren’t normally made. For example, there may be a file of debugging output, or a version of the program that is compiled specially for testing, which has a rule in the makefile but isn’t a dependency of the default goal.

Another use of specifying a goal is to run the commands associated with a phony target (see section Phony Targets) or empty target (see section Empty Target Files to Record Events). Many makefiles contain a phony target named ‘clean’ which deletes everything except source files. Naturally, this is done only if you request it explicitly with ‘make clean’. Here is a list of typical phony and empty target names:

‘all’

Make all the top-level targets the makefile knows about.

‘clean’

Delete all files that are normally created by running make.

‘distclean’

‘realclean’

‘clobber’

Any of these three might be defined to delete everything that would not be part of a standard distribution. For example, this would delete configuration files or links that you would normally create as preparation for compilation, even if the makefile itself cannot create these files.

‘install’

Copy the executable file into a directory that users typically search for commands; copy any auxiliary files that the executable uses into the directories where it will look for them.

‘print’

Print listings of the source files that have changed.

‘tar’

Create a tar file of the source files.

‘shar’

Create a shell archive (shar file) of the source files.

‘dist’

Create a distribution file of the source files. This might be a tar file, or a shar file, or a compressed version of one of the above, or even more than one of the above.

10.3 Instead of Executing the Commands

The makefile tells make how to tell whether a target is up to date, and how to update each target. But updating the targets is not always what you want. Certain options specify other activities for make.

‘-t’

“Touch”. The activity is to mark the targets as up to date without actually changing them. In other words, make pretends to compile the targets but does not really change their contents.

‘-n’

“No-op”. The activity is to print what commands would be used to make the targets up to date, but not actually execute them.

‘-q’

“Question”. The activity is to find out silently whether the targets are up to date already; but execute no commands in either case. In other words, neither compilation nor output will occur.

‘-W’

“What if”. Each ‘-W’ flag is followed by a file name. The given files’ modification times are recorded by make as being the present time, although the actual modification times remain the same. When used in conjunction with the ‘-n’ flag, the ‘-W’ flag provides a way to see what would happen if you were to modify specific files.

With the ‘-n’ flag, make prints without execution the commands that it would normally execute.

With the ‘-t’ flag, make ignores the commands in the rules and uses (in effect) the command touch for each target that needs to be remade. The touch command is also printed, unless ‘-s’ or .SILENT is used. For speed, make does not actually invoke the program touch. It does the work directly.

With the ‘-q’ flag, make prints nothing and executes no commands, but the exit status code it returns is zero if and only if the targets to be considered are already up to date.

It is an error to use more than one of these three flags in the same invocation of make.

The ‘-n’, ‘-t’, and ‘-q’ options do not affect command lines that begin with ‘+’ characters or contain the strings ‘$(MAKE)’ or ‘${MAKE}’. Note that only the line containing the ‘+’ character or the strings ‘$(MAKE)’ or ‘${MAKE}’ is run regardless of these options. Other lines in the same rule are not run unless they too begin with ‘+’ or contain ‘$(MAKE)’ or ‘${MAKE}’.

The ‘-W’ flag provides two features:

• If you also use the ‘-n’ or ‘-q’ flag, you can see what make would do if you were to modify some files.
• Without the ‘-n’ or ‘-q’ flag, when make is actually executing commands, the ‘-W’ flag can direct make to act as if some files had been modified, without actually modifying the files.

Note that the options ‘-p’ and ‘-v’ allow you to obtain other information about make or about the makefiles in use. See section Summary of Options.

10.4 Avoiding Recompilation of Some Files

Sometimes you may have changed a source file but you don’t want to recompile all the files that depend on it. For example, suppose you add a macro or a declaration to a header file that many other files depend on. Being conservative, make assumes that any change in the header file requires recompilation of all dependent files, but you know that they don’t need to be recompiled and you would rather not waste the time waiting for them to compile.

If you anticipate the problem before changing the header file, you can use the ‘-t’ flag. This flag tells make not to run the commands in the rules, but rather to mark the target up to date by changing its last-modification date. You would follow this procedure:

1. Use the command ‘make’ to recompile the source files that really need recompilation.
2. Make the changes in the header files.
3. Use the command ‘make -t’ to mark all the object files as up to date. The next time you run make, the changes in the header files will not cause any recompilation.

If you have already changed the header file at a time when some files do need recompilation, it is too late to do this. Instead, you can use the ‘-o file’ flag, which marks a specified file as “old” (see section Summary of Options). This means that the file itself won’t be remade, and nothing else will be remade on its account. Follow this procedure:

1. Recompile the source files that need compilation for reasons independent of the particular header file, with ‘make -o headerfile’. If several header files are involved, use a separate ‘-o’ option for each header file.
2. Touch all the object files with ‘make -t’.

10.5 Overriding Variables

An argument that contains ‘=’ specifies the value of a variable: ‘v=x’ sets the value of the variable v to x. If you specify a value in this way, all ordinary assignments of the same variable in the makefile are ignored; we say they have been overridden by the command line argument.

The most common way to use this facility is to pass extra flags to compilers. For example, in a properly written makefile, the variable CFLAGS is included in each command that runs the C compiler, so a file ‘foo.c’ would be compiled something like this:

cc -c $(CFLAGS) foo.c

Thus, whatever value you set for CFLAGS affects each compilation that occurs. The makefile probably specifies the usual value for CFLAGS, like this:

CFLAGS=-g

Each time you run make, you can override this value if you wish. For example, if you say ‘make CFLAGS='-g -O'’, each C compilation will be done with ‘cc -c -g -O’. (This illustrates how you can enclose spaces and other special characters in the value of a variable when you override it.)

The variable CFLAGS is only one of many standard variables that exist just so that you can change them this way. See section Variables Used by Implicit Rules, for a complete list.

You can also program the makefile to look at additional variables of your own, giving the user the ability to control other aspects of how the makefile works by changing the variables.

When you override a variable with a command argument, you can define either a recursively-expanded variable or a simply-expanded variable. The examples shown above make a recursively-expanded variable; to make a simply-expanded variable, write ‘:=’ instead of ‘=’. But, unless you want to include a variable reference or function call in the value that you specify, it makes no difference which kind of variable you create.

There is one way that the makefile can change a variable that you have overridden. This is to use the override directive, which is a line that looks like this: ‘override variable = value’. See section The override Directive.

10.6 Testing the Compilation of a Program

Normally, when an error happens in executing a shell command, make gives up immediately, returning a nonzero status. No further commands are executed for any target. The error implies that the goal cannot be correctly remade, and make reports this as soon as it knows.

When you are compiling a program that you have just changed, this is not what you want. Instead, you would rather that make try compiling every file that can be tried, to show you as many compilation errors as possible.

On these occasions, you should use the ‘-k’ flag. This tells make to continue to consider the other dependencies of the pending targets, remaking them if necessary, before it gives up and returns nonzero status. For example, after an error in compiling one object file, ‘make -k’ will continue compiling other object files even though it already knows that linking them will be impossible. In addition to continuing after failed shell commands, ‘make -k’ will continue as much as possible after discovering that it doesn’t know how to make a target or dependency file. This will always cause an error message, but without ‘-k’, it is a fatal error. See section Summary of Options.

The usual behavior of make assumes that your purpose is to get the goals up to date; once make learns that this is impossible, it might as well report the failure immediately. The ‘-k’ flag says that the real purpose is to test as much as possible of the changes made in the program, perhaps to find several independent problems so that you can correct them all before the next attempt to compile. This is why Emacs’s M-x compile command passes the ‘-k’ flag by default.

10.7 Summary of Options

Here is a table of all the options make understands:

‘-b’

‘-m’

These options are ignored for compatibility with other versions of make.

‘-C dir’

Change to directory dir before reading the makefiles. If multiple ‘-C’ options are specified, each is interpreted relative to the previous one: ‘-C / -C etc’ is equivalent to ‘-C /etc’. This is typically used with recursive invocations of make (see section Recursive Use of make).

‘-d’

Print debugging information in addition to normal processing. The debugging information says which files are being considered for remaking, which file-times are being compared and with what results, which files actually need to be remade, which implicit rules are considered and which are applied—everything interesting about how make decides what to do.

‘-e’

Give variables taken from the environment precedence over variables from makefiles. See section Variables from the Environment.

‘-f file’

Use file file as a makefile. See section Writing Makefiles.

‘-i’

Ignore all errors in commands executed to remake files. See section Errors in Commands.

‘-I dir’

Specifies a directory dir to search for included makefiles. See section Including Other Makefiles. If several ‘-I’ options are used to specify several directories, the directories are searched in the order specified. Unlike the arguments to other flags of make, directories given with ‘-I’ flags may come directly after the flag: ‘-Idir’ is allowed, as well as ‘-I dir’. This syntax is allowed for compatibility with the C preprocessor’s ‘-I’ flag.

‘-j jobs’

Specifies the number of jobs (commands) to run simultaneously. If there is more than one ‘-j’ option, the last one is effective. See section Command Execution, for more information on how commands are run.

‘-k’

Continue as much as possible after an error. While the target that failed, and those that depend on it, cannot be remade, the other dependencies of these targets can be processed all the same. See section Testing the Compilation of a Program.

‘-l load’

‘-l’

Specifies that no new jobs (commands) should be started if there are others jobs running and the load average is at least load (a floating-point number). With no argument, removes a previous load limit. See section Parallel Execution.

‘-n’

Print the commands that would be executed, but do not execute them. See section Instead of Executing the Commands.

‘-o file’

Do not remake the file file even if it is older than its dependencies, and do not remake anything on account of changes in file. Essentially the file is treated as very old and its rules are ignored. See section Avoiding Recompilation of Some Files.

‘-p’

Print the data base (rules and variable values) that results from reading the makefiles; then execute as usual or as otherwise specified. This also prints the version information given by the ‘-v’ switch (see below). To print the data base without trying to remake any files, use ‘make -p -f /dev/null’.

‘-q’

“Question mode”. Do not run any commands, or print anything; just return an exit status that is zero if the specified targets are already up to date, nonzero otherwise. See section Instead of Executing the Commands.

‘-r’

Eliminate use of the built-in implicit rules (see section Using Implicit Rules). Also clear out the default list of suffixes for suffix rules (see section Old-Fashioned Suffix Rules).

‘-s’

Silent operation; do not print the commands as they are executed. See section Command Echoing.

‘-S’

Cancel the effect of the ‘-k’ option. This is never necessary except in a recursive make where ‘-k’ might be inherited from the top-level make via MAKEFLAGS (see section Recursive Use of make) or if you set ‘-k’ in MAKEFLAGS in your environment.

‘-t’

Touch files (mark them up to date without really changing them) instead of running their commands. This is used to pretend that the commands were done, in order to fool future invocations of make. See section Instead of Executing the Commands.

‘-v’

Print the version of the make program plus a copyright, a list of authors and a notice that there is no warranty. After this information is printed, processing continues normally. To get this information without doing anything else, use ‘make -v -f /dev/null’.

‘-w’

Print a message containing the working directory both before and after executing the makefile. This may be useful for tracking down errors from complicated nests of recursive make commands. See section Recursive Use of make.

‘-W file’

Pretend that the target file has just been modified. When used with the ‘-n’ flag, this shows you what would happen if you were to modify that file. Without ‘-n’, it is almost the same as running a touch command on the given file before running make, except that the modification time is changed only in the imagination of make.

11 Using Implicit Rules

Certain standard ways of remaking target files are used very often. For example, one customary way to make an object file is from a C source file using the C compiler, cc.

Implicit rules tell make how to use customary techniques so that you don’t have to specify them in detail when you want to use them. For example, there is an implicit rule for C compilation. Implicit rules work based on file names. For example, C compilation typically takes a ‘.c’ file and makes a ‘.o’ file. So make applies the implicit rule for C compilation when it sees this combination of file-name endings.

A chain of implicit rules can apply in sequence; for example, make will remake a ‘.o’ file from a ‘.y’ file by way of a ‘.c’ file.

The built-in implicit rules use several variables in their commands so that, by changing the values of the variables, you can change the way the implicit rule works. For example, the variable CFLAGS controls the flags given to the C compiler by the implicit rule for C compilation.

You can define your own implicit rules by writing pattern rules.

11.1 Using Implicit Rules

To allow make to find a customary method for updating a target file, all you have to do is refrain from specifying commands yourself. Either write a rule with no command lines, or don’t write a rule at all. Then make will figure out which implicit rule to use based on which kind of source file exists.

For example, suppose the makefile looks like this:

foo : foo.o bar.o
        cc -o foo foo.o bar.o $(CFLAGS) $(LDFLAGS)

Because you mention ‘foo.o’ but do not give a rule for it, make will automatically look for an implicit rule that tells how to update it. This happens whether or not the file ‘foo.o’ currently exists.

If an implicit rule is found, it supplies both commands and one or more dependencies (the source files). You would want to write a rule for ‘foo.o’ with no command lines if you need to specify additional dependencies, such as header files, that the implicit rule cannot supply.

Each implicit rule has a target pattern and dependency patterns. There may be many implicit rules with the same target pattern. For example, numerous rules make ‘.o’ files: one, from a ‘.c’ file with the C compiler; another, from a ‘.p’ file with the Pascal compiler; and so on. The rule that actually applies is the one whose dependencies exist or can be made. So, if you have a file ‘foo.c’, make will run the C compiler; otherwise, if you have a file ‘foo.p’, make will run the Pascal compiler; and so on.

Of course, when you write the makefile, you know which implicit rule you want make to use, and you know it will choose that one because you know which possible dependency files are supposed to exist. See section Catalogue of Implicit Rules, for a catalogue of all the predefined implicit rules.

Above, we said an implicit rule applies if the required dependencies “exist or can be made”. A file “can be made” if it is mentioned explicitly in the makefile as a target or a dependency, or if an implicit rule can be recursively found for how to make it. When an implicit dependency is the result of another implicit rule, we say that chaining is occurring. See section Chains of Implicit Rules.

In general, make searches for an implicit rule for each target, and for each double-colon rule, that has no commands. A file that is mentioned only as a dependency is considered a target whose rule specifies nothing, so implicit rule search happens for it. See section Implicit Rule Search Algorithm, for the details of how the search is done.

If you don’t want an implicit rule to be used for a target that has no commands, you can give that target empty commands by writing a semicolon. See section Defining Empty Commands.

11.2 Catalogue of Implicit Rules

Here is a catalogue of predefined implicit rules which are always available unless the makefile explicitly overrides or cancels them. See section Canceling Implicit Rules, for information on canceling or overriding an implicit rule. The ‘-r’ option cancels all predefined rules.

Not all of these rules will always be defined, even when the ‘-r’ option is not given. Many of the predefined implicit rules are implemented in make as suffix rules, so which ones will be defined depends on the suffix list (the list of dependencies of the special target .SUFFIXES). See section Old-Fashioned Suffix Rules. The default suffix list is: ‘.out’, ‘.a’, ‘.o’, ‘.c’, ‘.cc’, ‘.p’, ‘.f’, ‘.F’, ‘.r’, ‘.e’, ‘.y’, ‘.ye’, ‘.yr’, ‘.l’, ‘.s’, ‘.S’, ‘.h’, ‘.info’, ‘.dvi’, ‘.tex’, ‘.texinfo’, ‘.cweb’, ‘.web’, ‘.sh’, ‘.elc’, ‘.el’. All of the implicit rules described below whose dependencies have one of these suffixes are actually suffix rules. If you modify the suffix list, the only predefined suffix rules in effect will be those named by one or two of the suffixes that are on the list you specify; rules whose suffixes fail to be on the list are disabled.

Compiling C programs

‘n.o’ will be made automatically from ‘n.c’ with a command of the form ‘$(CC) -c $(CPPFLAGS) $(CFLAGS)’.

Compiling C++ programs

‘n.o’ will be made automatically from ‘n.cc’ with a command of the form ‘$(C++) -c $(CPPFLAGS) $(C++FLAGS)’. Although supported by the GNU C++ compiler, the suffix used by the AT&T C++ preprocessor, ‘.C’, is not supported in make because we encourage the use of the preferred suffix for C++ files, ‘.cc’.

Compiling Pascal programs

‘n.o’ will be made automatically from ‘n.p’ with the command ‘$(PC) -c $(PFLAGS)’.

Compiling Fortran and Ratfor programs

‘n.o’ will be made automatically from ‘n.r’, ‘n.F’ or ‘n.f’ by running the Fortran compiler. The precise command used is as follows:

‘.f’

‘$(FC) -c $(FFLAGS)’.

‘.F’

‘$(FC) -c $(FFLAGS) $(CPPFLAGS)’.

‘.r’

‘$(FC) -c $(FFLAGS) $(RFLAGS)’.

Preprocessing Fortran and Ratfor programs

‘n.f’ will be made automatically from ‘n.r’ or ‘n.F’. This rule runs just the preprocessor to convert a Ratfor or preprocessable Fortran program into a strict Fortran program. The precise command used is as follows:

‘.F’

‘$(FC) -F $(CPPFLAGS) $(FFLAGS)’.

‘.r’

‘$(FC) -F $(FFLAGS) $(RFLAGS)’.

Compiling Modula-2 programs

‘n.sym’ will be made from ‘n.def’ with a command of the form ‘$(M2C) $(M2FLAGS) $(DEFFLAGS)’. ‘n.o’ will be made from ‘n.mod’ with a command of the form ‘$(M2C) $(M2FLAGS) $(MODFLAGS)’.

Assembling and preprocessing assembler programs

‘n.o’ will be made automatically from ‘n.s’ by running the assembler as. The precise command used is ‘$(AS) $(ASFLAGS)’.

‘n.s’ will be made automatically from ‘n.S’ by running the C preprocessor cpp. The precise command used is ‘$(CPP) $(CPPFLAGS)’.

Linking a single object file

‘n’ will be made automatically from ‘n.o’ by running the linker ld via the C compiler. The precise command used is ‘$(CC) $(LDFLAGS) n.o $(LOADLIBES)’.

This rule does the right thing for a simple program with only one source file. It will also do the right thing if there are multiple object files (presumably coming from various other source files), the first of which has a name matching that of the executable file. Thus,

x: y.o z.o

when ‘x.c’, ‘y.c’ and ‘z.c’ all exist will execute:

cc -c x.c -o x.o
cc -c y.c -o y.o
cc -c z.c -o z.o
cc x.o y.o z.o -o x
rm -f x.o
rm -f y.o
rm -f z.o

In more complicated cases, such as when there is no object file whose name derives from the executable file name, you must write an explicit command for linking.

Each kind of file automatically made into .o object files will be automatically linked by using the compiler (‘$(CC)’, ‘$(FC)’ or ‘$(PC)’; the C compiler ‘$(CC)’ is used to assemble .s files) without the ‘-c’ option. This could be done by using the .o object files as intermediates, but it is faster to do the compiling and linking in one step, so that’s how it’s done.

Yacc for C programs

‘n.c’ will be made automatically from ‘n.y’ by running Yacc with the command ‘$(YACC) $(YFLAGS)’.

Lex for C programs

‘n.c’ will be made automatically from ‘n.l’ by by running Lex. The actual command is ‘$(LEX) $(LFLAGS)’.

Lex for Ratfor programs

‘n.r’ will be made automatically from ‘n.l’ by by running Lex. The actual command is ‘$(LEX) $(LFLAGS)’.

The convention of using the same suffix ‘.l’ for all Lex files regardless of whether they produce C code or Ratfor code makes it impossible for make to determine automatically which of the two languages you are using in any particular case. If make is called upon to remake an object file from a ‘.l’ file, it must guess which compiler to use. It will guess the C compiler, because that is more common. If you are using Ratfor, make sure make knows this by mentioning ‘n.r’ in the makefile. Or, if you are using Ratfor exclusively, with no C files, remove .c from the list of implicit rule suffixes with:

.SUFFIXES:
.SUFFIXES: .r .f .l …

Making Lint Libraries from C, Yacc, or Lex programs

‘n.ln’ will be made from ‘n.c’ with a command of the form ‘$(LINT) $(LINTFLAGS) $(CPPFLAGS) -i’. The same command will be used on the C code produced from ‘n.y’ or ‘n.l’.

TeX and Web

‘n.dvi’ will be made from ‘n.tex’ with the command ‘$(TEX)’. ‘n.tex’ will be made from ‘n.web’ with ‘$(WEAVE)’, or from ‘n.cweb’ with ‘$(CWEAVE)’. ‘n.p’ will be made from ‘n.web’ with ‘$(TANGLE)’ and ‘n.c’ will be made from ‘n.cweb’ with ‘$(CTANGLE)’.

Texinfo and Info

‘n.dvi’ will be made from ‘n.texinfo’ using the ‘$(TEX)’ and ‘$(TEXINDEX)’ commands. The actual command sequence contains many shell conditionals to avoid unnecessarily running TeX twice and to create the proper sorted index files. ‘n.info’ will be made from ‘n.texinfo’ with the command ‘$(MAKEINFO)’.

RCS

Any file ‘n’ will be extracted if necessary from an RCS file named either ‘n,v’ or ‘RCS/n,v’. The precise command used is ‘$(CO) $(COFLAGS)’. ‘n’ will not be extracted from RCS if it already exists, even if the RCS file is newer.

SCCS

Any file ‘n’ will be extracted if necessary from an SCCS file named either ‘s.n’ or ‘SCCS/s.n’. The precise command used is ‘$(GET) $(GFLAGS)’.

For the benefit of SCCS, a file ‘n’ will be copied from ‘n.sh’ and made executable (by everyone). This is for shell scripts that are checked into SCCS. Since RCS preserves the execution permission of a file, you don’t need to use this feature with RCS.

We recommend that you avoid the use of SCCS. RCS is widely held to be superior, and is also free. By choosing free software in place of comparable (or inferior) proprietary software, you support the free software movement.

11.3 Variables Used by Implicit Rules

The commands in built-in implicit rules make liberal use of certain predefined variables. You can alter these variables, either in the makefile or with arguments to make, to alter how the implicit rules work without redefining the rules themselves.

For example, the command used to compile a C source file actually says ‘$(CC) -c $(CFLAGS) $(CPPFLAGS)’. The default values of the variables used are ‘cc’ and nothing, resulting in the command ‘cc -c’. By redefining ‘$(CC)’ to ‘ncc’, you could cause ‘ncc’ to be used for all C compilations performed by the implicit rule. By redefining ‘$(CFLAGS)’ to be ‘-g’, you could pass the ‘-g’ option to each compilation. All implicit rules that do C compilation use ‘$(CC)’ to get the program name for the compiler and all include ‘$(CFLAGS)’ among the arguments given to the compiler.

The variables used in implicit rules fall into two classes: those that are names of programs (like CC) and those that contain arguments for the programs (like CFLAGS). (The “name of a program” may also contain some command arguments, but it must start with an actual executable program name.) If a variable value contains more than one argument, separate them with spaces.

Here is a table of variables used as names of programs:

AR

Archive-maintaing program; default ‘ar’.

AS

Program for doing assembly; default ‘as’.

CC

Program for compiling C programs; default ‘cc’.

C++

Program for compiling C++ programs; default ‘g++’.

CO

Program for extracting a file from RCS; default ‘co’.

CPP

Program for running the C preprocessor, with results to standard output; default ‘$(CC) -E’.

FC

Program for compiling or preprocessing Fortran, Ratfor, and EFL programs; default ‘f77’.

GET

Program for extracting a file from SCCS; default ‘get’.

LEX

Program to use to turn Lex grammars into C programs or Ratfor programs; default ‘lex’.

PC

Program for compiling Pascal programs; default ‘pc’.

FC

EC

RC

Programs for compiling Fortran, EFL, and Ratfor programs, respectively; these all default to ‘f77’.

YACC

Program to use to turn Yacc grammars into C programs; default ‘yacc’.

YACCR

Program to use to turn Yacc grammars into Ratfor programs; default ‘yacc -r’.

YACCE

Program to use to turn Yacc grammars into EFL programs; default ‘yacc -e’.

MAKEINFO

Program to make Info files from Texinfo source; default ‘makeinfo’.

TEX

Program to make TeX DVI files from TeX or Texinfo source; default ‘tex’.

TEXINDEX

The texindex program distributed with Emacs. This is used in the process to make TeX DVI files from Texinfo source.

WEAVE

Program to translate Web into TeX; default ‘weave’.

CWEAVE

Program to translate C Web into TeX; default ‘cweave’.

TANGLE

Program to translate Web into Pascal; default ‘tangle’.

CTANGLE

Program to translate C Web into C; default ‘ctangle’.

RM

Command to remove a file; default ‘rm -f’.

Here is a table of variables whose values are additional arguments for the programs above. The default values for all of these is the empty string, unless otherwise noted.

ARFLAGS

Flags to give the archive- maintaining program; default ‘rv’.

ASFLAGS

Extra flags to give to the assembler (when explicitly invoked on a ‘.s’ file).

CFLAGS

Extra flags to give to the C compiler.

C++FLAGS

Extra flags to give to the C++ compiler.

COFLAGS

Extra flags to give to the RCS co program.

CPPFLAGS

Extra flags to give to the C preprocessor and programs that use it (the C and Fortran compilers).

EFLAGS

Extra flags to give to the Fortran compiler for EFL programs.

FFLAGS

Extra flags to give to the Fortran compiler.

GFLAGS

Extra flags to give to the SCCS get program.

LDFLAGS

Extra flags to give to compilers when they are supposed to invoke the linker, ‘ld’.

LFLAGS

Extra flags to give to Lex.

PFLAGS

Extra flags to give to the Pascal compiler.

RFLAGS

Extra flags to give to the Fortran compiler for Ratfor programs.

YFLAGS

Extra flags to give to Yacc.

11.4 Chains of Implicit Rules

Sometimes a file can be made by a sequence of implicit rules. For example, a file ‘n.o’ could be made from ‘n.y’ by running first Yacc and then cc. Such a sequence is called a chain.

If the file ‘n.c’ exists, or is mentioned in the makefile, no special searching is required: make finds that the object file can be made by C compilation from ‘n.c’; later on, when considering how to make ‘n.c’, the rule for running Yacc will be used. Ultimately both ‘n.c’ and ‘n.o’ are updated.

However, even if ‘n.c’ does not exist and is not mentioned, make knows how to envision it as the missing link between ‘n.o’ and ‘n.y’! In this case, ‘n.c’ is called an intermediate file. Once make has decided to use the intermediate file, it is entered in the data base as if it had been mentioned in the makefile, along with the implicit rule that says how to create it.

Intermediate files are remade using their rules just like all other files. The difference is that the intermediate file is deleted when make is finished. Therefore, the intermediate file which did not exist before make also does not exist after make. The deletion is reported to you by printing a ‘rm -f’ command that shows what make is doing. (You can optionally define an implicit rule so as to preserve certain intermediate files. You can also list the target pattern of an implicit rule (such as ‘%.o’) as a dependency file of the special target .PRECIOUS to preserve intermediate files whose target patterns match that file’s name.)

A chain can involve more than two implicit rules. For example, it is possible to make a file ‘foo’ from ‘RCS/foo.y,v’ by running RCS, Yacc and cc. Then both ‘foo.y’ and ‘foo.c’ are intermediate files that are deleted at the end.

No single implicit rule can appear more than once in a chain. This means that make will not even consider such a ridiculous thing as making ‘foo’ from ‘foo.o.o’ by running the linker twice. This constraint has the added benefit of preventing any infinite loop in the search for an implicit rule chain.

There are some special implicit rules to optimize certain cases that would otherwise by handled by rule chains. For example, making ‘foo’ from ‘foo.c’ could be handled by compiling and linking with separate chained rules, using ‘foo.o’ as an intermediate file. But what actually happens is that a special rule for this case does the compilation and linking with a single cc command. The optimized rule is used in preference to the step-by-step chain because it comes earlier in the ordering of rules.

11.5 Defining and Redefining Pattern Rules

You define an implicit rule by writing a pattern rule. A pattern rule looks like an ordinary rule, except that its target contains the character ‘%’ (exactly one of them). The target is considered a pattern for matching file names; the ‘%’ can match any nonempty substring, while other characters match only themselves. The dependencies likewise use ‘%’ to show how their names relate to the target name.

Thus, a pattern rule ‘%.o : %.c’ says how to make any file ‘stem.o’ from another file ‘stem.c’.

11.5.1 Introduction to Pattern Rules

You define an implicit rule by writing a pattern rule. A pattern rule looks like an ordinary rule, except that its target contains the character ‘%’ (exactly one of them). The target is considered a pattern for matching file names; the ‘%’ can match any nonempty substring, while other characters match only themselves.

For example, ‘%.c’ as a pattern matches any file name that ends in ‘.c’. ‘s.%.c’ as a pattern matches any file name that starts with ‘s.’, ends in ‘.c’ and is at least five characters long. (There must be at least one character to match the ‘%’.) The substring that the ‘%’ matches is called the stem.

‘%’ in a dependency of a pattern rule stands for the same stem that was matched by the ‘%’ in the target. In order for the pattern rule to apply, its target pattern must match the file name under consideration, and its dependency patterns must name files that exist or can be made. These files become dependencies of the target.

Thus, a rule of the form

%.o : %.c

would specify how to make any file ‘n.o’, with another file ‘n.c’ as its dependency, provided that the other file exists or can be made.

There may also be dependencies that do not use ‘%’; such a dependency attaches to every file made by this pattern rule. These unvarying dependencies are useful occasionally.

It is allowed for a pattern rule to have no dependencies that contain ‘%’ or to have no dependencies at all. This is effectively a general wildcard. It provides a way to make any file that matches the target pattern.

Pattern rules may have more than one target. Unlike normal rules, this does not act as many different rules with the same dependencies and commands. If a pattern rule has multiple targets, make knows that the rule’s commands are responsible for making all of the targets. The commands are executed only once to make all of the targets. When searching for a pattern rule to match a target, the target patterns of a rule other than the one that matches the target in need of a rule are incidental: make worries only about giving commands and dependencies to the file presently in question. However, when this file’s commands are run, the other targets are marked as having been updated themselves.

The order in which pattern rules appear in the makefile is important because the rules are considered in that order. Of equally applicable rules, the first one found is used. The rules you write take precedence over those that are built in. Note, however, that a rule whose dependencies actually exist or are mentioned always takes priority over a rule with dependencies that must be made by chaining other implicit rules.

11.5.2 Pattern Rule Examples

Here are some examples of pattern rules actually predefined in make. First, the rule that compiles ‘.c’ files into ‘.o’ files:

%.o : %.c
        $(CC) -c $(CFLAGS) $(CPPFLAGS) $< -o $@

defines a rule that can make any file ‘x.o’ from ‘x.c’. The command uses the automatic variables ‘$@’ and ‘$<’ to substitute the names of the target file and the source file in each case where the rule applies (see section Automatic Variables).

Here is a second built-in rule:

% :: RCS/%,v
        $(CO) $(COFLAGS) $<

defines a rule that can make any file ‘x’ whatever from a corresponding file ‘x,v’ in the subdirectory ‘RCS’. Since the target is ‘%’, this rule will apply to any file whatever, provided the appropriate dependency file exists. The double colon makes the rule terminal, which means that its dependency may not be an intermediate file (see section Match-Anything Pattern Rules).

This pattern rule has two targets:

%.tab.c %.tab.h: %.y
        bison -d $<

This tells make that the command ‘bison -d x.y’ will make both ‘x.tab.c’ and ‘x.tab.h’. If the file ‘foo’ depends on the files ‘parse.tab.o’ and ‘scan.o’ and ‘scan.o’ depends on ‘parse.tab.h’, when ‘parse.y’ is changed, the command ‘bison -d parse.y’ will be executed only once, and the dependencies of both ‘parse.tab.o’ and ‘scan.o’ will be satisfied. (Presumably, ‘parse.tab.o’ will be recompiled from ‘parse.tab.c’ and ‘scan.o’ from ‘scan.c’, and ‘foo’ will be linked from ‘parse.tab.o’, ‘scan.o’, and its other dependencies, and it will execute happily ever after.)

11.5.3 Automatic Variables

Suppose you are writing a pattern rule to compile a ‘.c’ file into a ‘.o’ file: how do you write the ‘cc’ command so that it operates on the right source file name? You can’t write the name in the command, because the name is different each time the implicit rule is applied.

What you do is use a special feature of make, the automatic variables. These variables have values computed afresh for each rule that is executed, based on the target and dependencies of the rule. In this example, you would use ‘$@’ for the object file name and ‘$<’ for the source file name.

Here is a table of automatic variables:

$@

The file name of the target of the rule. If the target is an archive member, then ‘$@’ is the name of the archive file.

$%

The target member name, when the target is an archive member. For example, if the target is ‘foo.a(bar.o)’ then ‘$%’ is ‘bar.o’ and ‘$@’ is ‘foo.a’. ‘$%’ is empty when the target is not an archive member.

$<

The name of the first dependency.

$?

The names of all the dependencies that are newer than the target, with spaces between them.

$^

The names of all the dependencies, with spaces between them.

$*

The stem with which an implicit rule matches (see section How Patterns Match). If the target is ‘dir/a.foo.b’ and the target pattern is ‘a.%.b’ then the stem is ‘dir/foo’. The stem is useful for constructing names of related files.

In an explicit rule, there is no stem; so ‘$*’ cannot be determined in that way. Instead, if the target name ends with a recognized suffix (see section Old-Fashioned Suffix Rules), ‘$*’ is set to the target name minus the suffix. For example, if the target name is ‘foo.c’, then ‘$*’ is set to ‘foo’, since ‘.c’ is a suffix.

If the target name in an explicit rule does not end with a recognized suffix, ‘$*’ is set to the empty string for that rule.

‘$?’ is useful even in explicit rules when you wish to operate on only the dependencies that have changed. For example, suppose that an archive named ‘lib’ is supposed to contain copies of several object files. This rule copies just the changed object files into the archive:

lib: foo.o bar.o lose.o win.o
        ar r lib $?

Of the variables listed above, four have values that are single file names, and two have values that are lists of file names. These six have variants that get just the file’s directory name or just the file name within the directory. The variant variables’ names are formed by appending ‘D’ or ‘F’, respectively. These variants are semi-obsolete in GNU make since the functions dir and notdir can be used to get an equivalent effect (see section Functions for File Names). Here is a table of the variants:

‘$(@D)’

The directory part of the file name of the target. If the value of ‘$@’ is ‘dir/foo.o’ then ‘$(@D)’ is ‘dir/’. This value is ‘./’ if ‘$@’ does not contain a slash. ‘$(@D)’ is equivalent to ‘$(dir $@)’.

‘$(@F)’

The file-within-directory part of the file name of the target. If the value of ‘$@’ is ‘dir/foo.o’ then ‘$(@F)’ is ‘foo.o’. ‘$(@F)’ is equivalent to ‘$(notdir $@)’.

‘$(*D)’

‘$(*F)’

The directory part and the file-within-directory part of the stem; ‘dir/’ and ‘foo’ in this example.

‘$(%D)’

‘$(%F)’

The directory part and the file-within-directory part of the target archive member name. This makes sense only for archive member targets of the form ‘archive(member)’ and useful only when member may contain a directory name. (See section Archive Members as Targets.)

‘$(<D)’

‘$(<F)’

The directory part and the file-within-directory part of the first dependency.

‘$(^D)’

‘$(^F)’

Lists of the directory parts and the file-within-directory parts of all dependencies.

‘$(?D)’

‘$(?F)’

Lists of the directory parts and the file-within-directory parts of all dependencies that are out of date with respect to the target.

Note that we use a special stylistic convention when we talk about these automatic variables; we write “the value of ‘$<’”, rather than “the variable <” as we would write for ordinary variables such as objects and CFLAGS. We think this convention looks more natural in this special case. Please don’t assume it has a deep significance; ‘$<’ refers to the variable named < just as ‘$(CFLAGS)’ refers to the variable named CFLAGS.

11.5.4 How Patterns Match

A target pattern is composed of a ‘%’ between a prefix and a suffix, either or both of which may be empty. The pattern matches a file name only if the file name starts with the prefix and ends with the suffix, without overlap. The text between the prefix and the suffix is called the stem. Thus, when the pattern ‘%.o’ matches the file name ‘test.o’, the stem is ‘test’. The pattern rule dependencies are turned into actual file names by substituting the stem for the character ‘%’. Thus, if in the same example one of the dependencies is written as ‘%.c’, it expands to ‘test.c’.

When the target pattern does not contain a slash (and usually it does not), directory names in the file names are removed from the file name before it is compared with the target prefix and suffix. The directory names, along with the slash that ends them, are added back to the stem. Thus, ‘e%t’ does match the file name ‘src/eat’, with ‘src/a’ as the stem. When dependencies are turned into file names, the directories from the stem are added at the front, while the rest of the stem is substituted for the ‘%’. The stem ‘src/a’ with a dependency pattern ‘c%r’ gives the file name ‘src/car’.

11.5.5 Match-Anything Pattern Rules

When a pattern rule’s target is just ‘%’, it matches any filename whatever. We call these rules match-anything rules. They are very useful, but it can take a lot of time for make to think about them, because it must consider every such rule for each file name listed either as a target or as a dependency.

Suppose the makefile mentions ‘foo.c’. For this target, make would have to consider making it by linking an object file ‘foo.c.o’, or by C compilation-and-linking in one step from ‘foo.c.c’, or by Pascal compilation-and-linking from ‘foo.c.p’, and many other possibilities.

We know these possibilities are ridiculous since ‘foo.c’ is a C source file, not an executable. If make did consider these possibilities, it would ultimately reject them, because files such as ‘foo.c.o’, ‘foo.c.p’, etc. would not exist. But these possibilities are so numerous that make would run very slowly if it had to consider them.

To gain speed, we have put various constraints on the way make considers match-anything rules. There are two different constraints that can be applied, and each time you define a match-anything rule you must choose one or the other for that rule.

One choice is to mark the match-anything rule as terminal by defining it with a double colon. When a rule is terminal, it does not apply unless its dependencies actually exist. Dependencies that could be made with other implicit rules are not good enough. In other words, no further chaining is allowed beyond a terminal rule.

For example, the built-in implicit rules for extracting sources from RCS and SCCS files are terminal; as a result, if the file ‘foo.c,v’ does not exist, make will not even consider trying to make it as an intermediate file from ‘foo.c,v.o’ or from ‘RCS/SCCS/s.foo.c,v’. RCS and SCCS files are generally ultimate source files, which should not be remade from any other files; therefore, make can save time by not looking for ways to remake them.

If you do not mark the match-anything rule as terminal, then it is nonterminal. A nonterminal match-anything rule cannot apply to a file name that indicates a specific type of data. A file name indicates a specific type of data if some non-match-anything implicit rule target matches it.

For example, the file name ‘foo.c’ matches the target for the pattern rule ‘%.c : %.y’ (the rule to run Yacc). Regardless of whether this rule is actually applicable (which happens only if there is a file ‘foo.y’), the fact that its target matches is enough to prevent consideration of any nonterminal match-anything rules for the file ‘foo.c’. Thus, make will not even consider trying to make ‘foo.c’ as an executable file from ‘foo.c.o’, ‘foo.c.c’, ‘foo.c.p’, etc.

The motivation for this constraint is that nonterminal match-anything rules are used for making files containing specific types of data (such as executable files) and a file name with a recognized suffix indicates some other specific type of data (such as a C source file).

Special built-in dummy pattern rules are provided solely to recognize certain file names so that nonterminal match-anything rules won’t be considered. These dummy rules have no dependencies and no commands, and they are ignored for all other purposes. For example, the built-in implicit rule

%.p :

exists to make sure that Pascal source files such as ‘foo.p’ match a specific target pattern and thereby prevent time from being wasted looking for ‘foo.p.o’ or ‘foo.p.c’.

Dummy pattern rules such as the one for ‘%.p’ are made for every suffix listed as valid for use in suffix rules. See section Old-Fashioned Suffix Rules.

11.5.6 Canceling Implicit Rules

You can override a built-in implicit rule by defining a new pattern rule with the same target and dependencies, but different commands. When the new rule is defined, the built-in one is replaced. The new rule’s position in the sequence of implicit rules is determined by where you write the new rule.

You can cancel a built-in implicit rule by defining a pattern rule with the same target and dependencies, but no commands. For example, the following would cancel the rule that runs the assembler:

%.o : %.s

11.6 Defining Last-Resort Default Rules

You can define a last-resort implicit rule by writing a rule for the target .DEFAULT. Such a rule’s commands are used for all targets and dependencies that have no commands of their own and for which no other implicit rule applies. Naturally, there is no .DEFAULT rule unless you write one.

For example, when testing a makefile, you might not care if the source files contain real data, only that they exist. Then you might do this:

.DEFAULT:
        touch $@

to cause all the source files needed (as dependencies) to be created automatically.

If you give .DEFAULT with no commands or dependencies:

.DEFAULT:

the commands previously stored for .DEFAULT are cleared. Then make acts as if you had never defined .DEFAULT at all.

If you want a target not to get the commands from .DEFAULT, but nor do you want any commands to be run for the target, you can give it empty commands. See section Defining Empty Commands.

11.7 Old-Fashioned Suffix Rules

Suffix rules are the old-fashioned way of defining implicit rules for make. Suffix rules are obsolete because pattern rules are more general and clearer. They are supported in GNU make for compatibility with old makefiles. They come in two kinds: double-suffix and single-suffix.

A double-suffix rule is defined by a pair of suffixes: the target suffix and the source suffix. It matches any file whose name ends with the target suffix. The corresponding implicit dependency is to the file name made by replacing the target suffix with the source suffix. A two-suffix rule whose target and source suffixes are ‘.o’ and ‘.c’ is equivalent to the pattern rule ‘%.o : %.c’.

A single-suffix rule is defined by a single suffix, which is the source suffix. It matches any file name, and the corresponding implicit dependency name is made by appending the source suffix. A single-suffix rule whose source suffix is ‘.c’ is equivalent to the pattern rule ‘% : %.c’.

Suffix rule definitions are recognized by comparing each rule’s target against a defined list of known suffixes. When make sees a rule whose target is a known suffix, this rule is considered a single-suffix rule. When make sees a rule whose target is two known suffixes concatenated, this rule is taken as a double-suffix rule.

For example, ‘.c’ and ‘.o’ are both on the default list of known suffixes. Therefore, if you define a rule whose target is ‘.c.o’, make takes it to be a double-suffix rule with source suffix ‘.c’ and target suffix ‘.o’. For example, here is the old fashioned way to define the rule for compiling a C source:

.c.o:
        $(CC) -c $(CFLAGS) $(CPPFLAGS) -o $@ $<

Suffix rules cannot have any dependencies of their own. If they have any, they are treated as normal files with funny names, not as suffix rules. Thus, the rule:

.c.o: foo.h
        $(CC) -c $(CFLAGS) $(CPPFLAGS) -o $@ $<

tells how to make the file ‘.c.o’ from the dependency file ‘foo.h’, and is not at all like the pattern rule:

%.o: %.c foo.h
        $(CC) -c $(CFLAGS) $(CPPFLAGS) -o $@ $<

which tells how to make .o files from .c files, and makes all .o files using this pattern rule also depend on ‘foo.h’.

Suffix rules with no commands are also meaningless. They do not remove previous rules as do pattern rules with no commands (see section Canceling Implicit Rules). They simply enter the suffix or pair of suffixes concatenated as a target in the data base.

The known suffixes are simply the names of the dependencies of the special target .SUFFIXES. You can add your own suffixes by writing a rule for .SUFFIXES that adds more dependencies, as in:

.SUFFIXES: .hack .win

which adds ‘.hack’ and ‘.win’ to the end of the list of suffixes.

If you wish to eliminate the default known suffixes instead of just adding to them, write a rule for .SUFFIXES with no dependencies. By special dispensation, this eliminates all existing dependencies of .SUFFIXES. You can then write another rule to add the suffixes you want. For example,

.SUFFIXES:    # Delete the default suffixes
.SUFFIXES: .c .o .h   # Define our suffix list

The ‘-r’ flag causes the default list of suffixes to be empty.

The variable SUFFIXES is defined to the default list of suffixes before make reads any makefiles. You can change the list of suffixes with a rule for the special target .SUFFIXES, but that does not alter this variable.

11.8 Implicit Rule Search Algorithm

Here is the procedure make uses for searching for an implicit rule for a target t. This procedure is followed for each double-colon rule with no commands, for each target of ordinary rules none of which have commands, and for each dependency that is not the target of any rule. It is also followed recursively for dependencies that come from implicit rules, in the search for a chain of rules.

Suffix rules are not mentioned in this algorithm because suffix rules are converted to equivalent pattern rules once the makefiles have been read in.

For an archive member target of the form ‘archive(member)’, the following algorithm is run twice, first using ‘(member)’ as the target t, and second using the entire target if the first run found no rule.

1. Split t into a directory part, called d, and the rest, called n. For example, if t is ‘src/foo.o’, then d is ‘src/’ and n is ‘foo.o’.
2. Make a list of all the pattern rules one of whose targets matches t or n. If the target pattern contains a slash, it is matched against t; otherwise, against n.
3. If any rule in that list is not a match-anything rule, then remove all nonterminal match-anything rules from the list.
4. Remove from the list all rules with no commands.
5. For each pattern rule in the list:
   1. Find the stem s, which is the nonempty part of t or n matched by the ‘%’ in the target pattern.
   2. Compute the dependency names by substituting s for ‘%’; if the target pattern does not contain a slash, append d to the front of each dependency name.
   3. Test whether all the dependencies exist or ought to exist. (If a file name is mentioned in the makefile as a target or as an explicit dependency then we say it ought to exist.)

      If all dependencies exist or ought to exist, or there are no dependencies, then this rule applies.

6. If no pattern rule has been found so far, try harder. For each pattern rule in the list:
   1. If the rule is terminal, ignore it and go on to the next rule.
   2. Compute the dependency names as before.
   3. Test whether all the dependencies exist or ought to exist.
   4. For each dependency that does not exist, follow this algorithm recursively to see if the dependency can be made by an implicit rule.
   5. If all dependencies exist, ought to exist, or can be made by implicit rules, then this rule applies.
7. If no implicit rule applies, the rule for .DEFAULT, if any, applies. In that case, give t the same commands that .DEFAULT has. Otherwise, there are no commands for t.

Once a rule that applies has been found, for each target pattern of the rule other than the one that matched t or n, the ‘%’ in the pattern is replaced with s and the resultant file name is stored until the commands to remake the target file t are executed. After these commands are executed, each of these stored file names are entered into the data base and marked as having been updated and having the same update status as the file t.

When the commands of a pattern rule are executed for t, the automatic variables are set corresponding to the target and dependencies. See section Automatic Variables.

12 Using make to Update Archive Files

Archive files are files containing named subfiles called members; they are maintained with the program ar and their main use is as subroutine libraries for linking.

12.1 Archive Members as Targets

An individual member of an archive file can be used as a target or dependency in make. The archive file must already exist, but the member need not exist. You specify the member named member in archive file archive as follows:

archive(member)

This construct is available only in targets and dependencies, not in commands! Most programs that you might use in commands do not support this syntax and cannot act directly on archive members. Only ar and other programs specifically designed to operate on archives can do so. Therefore, valid commands to update an archive member target probably must use ar. For example, this rule says to create a member ‘hack.o’ in archive ‘foolib’ by copying the file ‘hack.o’:

foolib(hack.o) : hack.o
        ar r foolib hack.o

In fact, nearly all archive member targets are updated in just this way and there is an implicit rule to do it for you.

12.2 Implicit Rule for Archive Member Targets

Recall that a target that looks like ‘a(m)’ stands for the member named m in the archive file a.

When make looks for an implicit rule for such a target, as a special feature it considers implicit rules that match ‘(m)’, as well as those that match the actual target ‘a(m)’.

This causes one special rule whose target is ‘(%)’ to match. This rule updates the target ‘a(m)’ by copying the file m into the archive. For example, it will update the archive member target ‘foo.a(bar.o)’ by copying the file ‘bar.o’ into the archive ‘foo.a’ as a member named ‘bar.o’.

When this rule is chained with others, the result is very powerful. Thus, ‘make "foo.a(bar.o)"’ in the presence of a file ‘bar.c’ is enough to cause the following commands to be run, even without a makefile:

cc -c bar.c -o bar.o
ar r foo.a bar.o
rm -f bar.o

Here make has envisioned the file ‘bar.o’ as an intermediate file.

Implicit rules such as this one are written using the automatic variable ‘$%’. See section Automatic Variables.

An archive member name in an archive cannot contain a directory name, but it may be useful in a makefile to pretend that it does. If you write an archive member target ‘foo.a(dir/file.o)’, make will perform automatic updating with this command:

ar r foo.a dir/file.o

which has the effect of copying the file ‘dir/foo.o’ into a member named ‘foo.o’. In connection with such usage, the automatic variables %D and %F may be useful.

12.2.1 Updating Archive Symbol Directories

An archive file that is used as a library usually contains a special member named ‘__.SYMDEF’ that contains a directory of the external symbol names defined by all the other members. After you update any other members, you need to update ‘__.SYMDEF’ so that it will summarize the other members properly. This is done by running the ranlib program:

ranlib archivefile

Normally you would put this command in the rule for the archive file, and make all the members of the archive file dependents of that rule. For example,

libfoo.a: libfoo.a(x.o) libfoo.a(y.o) …
        ranlib libfoo.a

The effect of this is to update archive members ‘x.o’, ‘y.o’, etc., and then update the symbol directory member ‘__.SYMDEF’ by running ranlib. The rules for updating the members are not shown here; most likely you can omit them and use the implicit rule which copies files into the archive, as described in the preceding section.

This is not necessary when using the GNU ar program, which updates the ‘__.SYMDEF’ member automatically.

13 Features of GNU make

Here is a summary of the features of GNU make, for comparison with and credit to other versions of make. We consider the features of make in BSD 4.2 systems as a baseline.

Many features come from the version of make in System V.

• The VPATH variable and its special meaning. See section Searching Directories for Dependencies. This feature exists in System V make, but is undocumented. It is documented in 4.3 BSD make (which says it mimics System V’s VPATH feature).
• Included makefiles. See section Including Other Makefiles.
• Variables are read from and communicated via the environment. See section Variables from the Environment.
• Options passed through the variable MAKEFLAGS to recursive invocations of make. See section Communicating Options to a Sub-make.
• The automatic variable $% is set to the member name in an archive reference. See section Automatic Variables.
• The automatic variables $@, $*, $< and $% have corresponding forms like $(@F) and $(@D). See section Automatic Variables.
• Substitution variable references. See section Basics of Variable References.
• The command-line options ‘-b’ and ‘-m’, accepted and ignored.
• Execution of recursive commands to run make via the variable MAKE even if ‘-n’, ‘-q’ or ‘-t’ is specified. See section Recursive Use of make.
• Support for suffix ‘.a’ in suffix rules. In GNU make, this is actually implemented by chaining with one pattern rule for installing members in an archive. See section Chains of Implicit Rules.
• The arrangement of lines and backslash-newline combinations in commands is retained when the commands are printed, so they appear as they do in the makefile, except for the stripping of initial whitespace.

The following features were inspired by various other versions of make. In some cases it is unclear exactly which versions inspired which others.

• Pattern rules using ‘%’. This has been implemented in several versions of make. We’re not sure who invented it first, but it’s been spread around a bit. See section Defining and Redefining Pattern Rules.
• Rule chaining and implicit intermediate files. This was implemented by Stu Feldman in his version of make for AT&T Eighth Edition Research Unix, and later by Andrew Hume of AT&T Bell Labs in his mk program. We don’t really know if we got this from either of them or thought it up ourselves at the same time. See section Chains of Implicit Rules.
• The automatic variable $^ containing a list of all dependencies of the current target. We didn’t invent this, but we have no idea who did. See section Automatic Variables.
• The “what if” flag (‘-W’ in GNU make) was (as far as we know) invented by Andrew Hume in mk. See section Instead of Executing the Commands.
• The concept of doing several things at once (parallelism) exists in many incarnations of make and similar programs, though not in the System V or BSD implementations. See section Command Execution.
• Modified variable references using pattern substitution come from SunOS 4.0. See section Basics of Variable References. This functionality was provided in GNU make by the patsubst function before the alternate syntax was implemented for compatibility with SunOS 4.0. It is not altogether clear who inspired whom, since GNU make had patsubst before SunOS 4.0 was released.
• The special significance of ‘+’ characters preceding command lines (see section Instead of Executing the Commands) is mandated by draft 8 of IEEE Std 1003.2 (POSIX).

The remaining features are inventions new in GNU make:

• The ‘-v’ option to print version and copyright information.
• Simply-expanded variables. See section The Two Flavors of Variables.
• Passing command-line variable assignments automatically through the variable MAKE to recursive make invocations. See section Recursive Use of make.
• The ‘-C’ command option to change directory. See section Summary of Options.
• Verbatim variable definitions made with define. See section Defining Variables Verbatim.
• Phony targets declared with the special target .PHONY. A similar feature with a different syntax was implemented by Andrew Hume of AT&T Bell Labs in his mk program. This seems to be a case of parallel discovery. See section Phony Targets.
• Text manipulation by calling functions. See section Functions for Transforming Text.
• The ‘-o’ option to pretend a file’s modification-time is old. See section Avoiding Recompilation of Some Files.
• Conditional execution. This has been implemented numerous times in various versions of make; it seems a natural extension derived from the features of the C preprocessor and similar macro languages and is not a revolutionary concept. See section Conditional Parts of Makefiles.
• The included makefile search path. See section Including Other Makefiles.
• Specifying extra makefiles to read. See section The Variable MAKEFILES.
• Stripping leading sequences of ‘./’ from file names, so that ‘./file’ and ‘file’ are considered to be the same file.
• Special search method for library dependencies written in the form ‘-lname’. See section Directory Search for Link Libraries.
• Allowing suffixes for suffix rules (see section Old-Fashioned Suffix Rules) to contain any characters. In other version of make, they must begin with ‘.’ and not contain any ‘/’ characters.
• The variable MAKELEVEL which keeps track of the current level of make recursion. See section Recursive Use of make.
• Static pattern rules. See section Static Pattern Rules.
• Selective vpath search. See section Searching Directories for Dependencies.
• Recursive variable references. See section Basics of Variable References.
• Updated makefiles. See section How Makefiles Are Remade. System V make has a very, very limited form of this functionality in that it will check out SCCS files for makefiles.
• Several new built-in implicit rules. See section Catalogue of Implicit Rules.

14 Missing Features in GNU make

The make programs in various other systems support a few features that are not implemented in GNU make.

• A target of the form ‘file((entry))’ stands for a member of archive file file. The member is chosen, not by name, but by being an object file which defines the linker symbol entry.

  This feature was not put into GNU make because of the nonmodularity of putting knowledge into make of the internal format of archive file symbol directories. See section Updating Archive Symbol Directories.

• Suffixes (used in suffix rules) that end with the character ‘~’ have a special meaning; they refer to the SCCS file that corresponds to the file one would get without the ‘~’. For example, the suffix rule ‘.c~.o’ would make the file ‘n.o’ file from the SCCS file ‘s.n.c’. For complete coverage, a whole series of such suffix rules is required. See section Old-Fashioned Suffix Rules.

  In GNU make, this entire series of cases is handled by two pattern rules for extraction from SCCS, in combination with the general feature of rule chaining. See section Chains of Implicit Rules.

• In System V make, the string ‘$$@’ has the strange meaning that, in the dependencies of a rule with multiple targets, it stands for the particular target that is being processed.

  This is not defined in GNU make because ‘$$’ should always stand for an ordinary ‘$’.

  It is possible to get this functionality through the use of static pattern rules (see section Static Pattern Rules). The System V make rule:

  $(targets): $$@.o lib.a
  

  can be replaced with the GNU make static pattern rule:

  $(targets): %: %.o lib.a
  

• In System V and 4.3 BSD make, files found by VPATH search (see section Searching Directories for Dependencies) have their names changed inside command strings. We feel it is much cleaner to always use automatic variables and thus make this feature obsolete. We are still debating whether to implement this for the sake of compatibility or to leave it out to avoid such terrible ugliness.

Index of Concepts